tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-47834753165973489492024-03-06T01:31:47.639+02:00'n Taalkundige perspektiefWilliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.comBlogger19125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-70904323749517440252021-12-17T10:27:00.000+02:002021-12-17T10:27:31.669+02:00<p><span style="text-indent: 0in;">Hierdie artikel is soos volg
gepubliseer:</span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">2009. Racism, an omnipresent chameleon. 2009. In </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Larissa Manerko (ed.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Categorization and conceptualization in LSP and professional discourse
studies</i>, Мoskou: Rusland, 155-164.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br /></span></b></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in; text-align: right;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US">Willem J. Botha<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 4.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: right; text-indent: .5in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(University of Johannesburg,<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in; text-align: right;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 7;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US">Racism</span></span><span class="MsoIntenseEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">,
an omnipresent chameleon<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;"><span class="MsoIntenseEmphasis"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">This article investigates the
concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racism]</span>. It shows that
much of the confusion that arises from the interpretation thereof originates
from the fact that the noun </span></i></span><span class="MsoIntenseEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">racism<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> is not derived from a verb,
although experiences of racism relate to actions (denoted by verbs) of racism.
It suggests that the concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racism] </span>should
be scrutinized next to the concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racialization</span>]
and that both of these concepts should be linked to the concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">discrimination]</span>. A model is proposed
with regard to the analysis of the relevant concepts.<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Preamble<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In 1994 the South African political
landscape changed dramatically. In that particular year National Party
supremacy came to an end – after a period of forty-six years</span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">. The </span><span lang="EN-US">African National Congress became the majority party in a Government
of National Unity. A new negotiated interim Constitution came into practice,
and eventually a Final Constitution was put into practice on 4 February 1997.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Some
of the key features of this Constitution, some of them relevant for this
article, involve the following: the Constitution is the supreme instrument with
regard to the functioning of the South African society; a democratic political
system is embedded within the Constitution; a </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Bill of Rights protects the defined rights of every citizen; the
Constitution provides for an independent Court, which includes the
Constitutional Court, and mechanisms (like a single citizenship and assurances
of human dignity, equality, nonracism and nonsexism) <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">intended to build a sole nation</span>. Regardless of the aspirations
for a single nation, the Constitution also recognizes diversity, by endorsing
eleven official languages, nine provinces with semi-autonomous governments,
protection of different rights, regarding, amongst others, language rights,
cultural rights, religious rights, women’s and children’s rights, recognition
of traditional leaders, etc. (cf.<span style="layout-grid-mode: line;">
Rautenbach and Malherbe, 1998:4-5).</span> <span style="layout-grid-mode: line;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal;">The previously mentioned constitutional principles contrast severely
with the ideology of apartheid, one of the cornerstones of previous National
Party rule. The term </span></span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">apartheid</span></span><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal;"> referred to an official policy of racial segregation,
which entailed institutionalized racism.</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #984806;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">As an ontological metaphor the
term <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">apartheid</span> had to function on a
superordinate level to accommodate many practices of </span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">racial segregation. On an
institutionalized basis it involved “political, legal, and economic
discrimination against nonwhites”, as defined by the </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">American Heritage Dictionary</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> (henceforward AHD 1996).<span style="color: #e36c0a;"> </span>But it involved more detailed legalized
practices, such as represented by the following acts, according to </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">D@dalos Education Server:</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“</span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> – mixed marriages are banned; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Population
Registration Act</span> – all citizens must be classified according to race; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Group Areas Act</span> – residential areas in the
cities allocated to particular racial groups; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Suppression
of Communism Act</span> – the government is allowed to ban organizations that
it regards as ‘communist’; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Reservation of
Separate Amenities Act</span> – the ‘small’ apartheid: public amenities and
facilities are segregated according to race; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Black
Education Act</span> – the black education system is detached from the
Education ministry”, etc. And even “smaller” non-</span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">institutionalized</span> <span lang="EN-US">race-related
offenses were condoned by the relevant overarching ideology, drawing </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">strict borders between categories of people. <span style="layout-grid-mode: line;">No “fuzzy boundaries” existed. A person would
have been considered either in or out of the category of “whites”, the
“supreme” category – in accordance with the appropriate ideology. </span></span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">Groot Woordeboek</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> / </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">Major Dictionary</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> rightly points out that
“(t)he word, and the notion of, apartheid has become obnoxious to the majority
of people in the world and has a strong pejorative sense ...”. As expected, in
course of time different synonyms were put into action to try to mitigate the
word’s emotional force, words and phrases such as </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">separate development</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">separateness</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">pluralism</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, etc. Being ontological metaphors
themselves, these words subtracted from a larger conceptual domain – the
concept [</span><span class="MsoSubtleReference"><span lang="EN-US">apartheid]</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> – specific notions which
“painted” a more positive state of affairs. This phenomenon will not be
analyzed with regard to the word </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">apartheid</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Then
came 1994. </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The<span style="layout-grid-mode: line;"> new constitution gave rise to hopes for a sole
nation – one that is not constituted by different categories (of people) with
strict borders. The metaphor </span></span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">rainbow nation</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, frequently used by former President Nelson Mandela,
described this nation to be: a new category with fuzzy boundaries. Against the
background of a cognitive process which Fauconnier and Turner (1996:113) call </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">conceptual blending</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, Botha (2001:52/53) examines
the conceptual nature of the relevant metaphor as follows: “(T)he two input
spaces, </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">rainbow</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> and </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">nation</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, share frame structure
on account of its relationship with a generic space: both </span><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">rainbow</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> and </span><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">nation</span></span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> imply diversity,
composition – actually a diverse assortment or collection (from a generic
space). As a result the blend suggests a coloured spectrum and several coloured
ethnic groups; but this emergent structure does not only suggest a blending of
several coloured ethnic groups of a coloured spectrum into one structure (a
nation), but also, and even more importantly, the right of each component to
keep its autonomy”. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A
speech made by </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the former Deputy
President of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki (presently the President), promoted this
blend when he expanded the concept [</span><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; font-variant: small-caps;">rainbow</span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-variant: small-caps; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; font-variant: small-caps;">nation]</span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-variant: small-caps; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">in
an attempt to extend this category to include other subcategories of Africa. In
an address on 8 May 1996, when he made a statement on behalf of the ANC, in <a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;">acceptation</span></a>
of South Africa’s 1996 constitution bill, he introduced the concept of an
African Renaissance. In his address he used the ever returning metaphorical
statement of </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">I am an
African</span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> whereby <i>I</i> is
taken to stand successively for the whole of Africa, for the whole nation, or
for one of its various ethnic groups. Compare Botha (2001) for a detailed
analysis. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A new government and
the implementation of the new constitution entailed the reconstruction of a new
and a just South African society, and – most importantly – the eradication of
racism. Consequently new ideological practices created new concepts and the comprehension
of such concepts, not only to understand the relevant procedures but also to
make a positive contribution to the nationally set objectives, became paramount.
Concepts like [</span><span class="MsoSubtleReference"><span lang="EN-US">transformation]</span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, [</span><span class="MsoSubtleReference"><span lang="EN-US">redress]</span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, [</span><span class="MsoSubtleReference"><span lang="EN-US">black empowerment]</span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, [</span><span class="MsoSubtleReference"><span lang="EN-US">affirmative action]</span></span><span lang="EN-US">, [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">quota systems]</span>, [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">reconciliation]</span> and many others came into
existence. Compare Botha (2004, 2004a, 2007) for a comprehensive discussion of the
conceptual contents of some of these terms.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Within the present South African community
all of these concepts are – some unambiguously, others in a disguised manner – in
a way linked to the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span>. Having
a clear understanding of the relevant concept will obviously contribute to a more
appreciative and healing society.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">But in February / March 2008 one became
very aware of the conceptual complexities of the relevant term within the
present-day South African community. It was also very obvious that the meaning
people have of the specific term relates to what Taylor (2002:187) calls the
conceptualization in the minds of language users.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Conceptualization of
racism<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On 28 February 2008 a reader of <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">The Citizen</span> (a South African news paper) wrote:
“There is something terribly wrong with the students of the University of the
Free State’s Reitz residence who participated in the video depicting crass
racial abuse of campus workers.” This incident took place the previous year, <a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK5"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;">allegedly</span></a>
as a reaction to forced integration within students’ residences by the
university authorities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">When this incident became known, it
generated vigorous emotional responses not only from within South Africa, but
also from abroad. Although this incident was mostly condemned, it became clear
that the conceptualization of racism, which was considered as the source of the
specific incident, has many faces. The following cursory quotes and summaries in
this regard, from different sources, clearly illustrate this phenomenon. After
being quoted, certain perspectives on racism will be discerned from the
relevant quotes – preceding a linguistic assessment of the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The chairperson of the South
African Human Rights Commission, Jody Kollapen, made, amongst others, also the
following comments, as reported by the <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Mail &
Guardian Online</span><span style="color: black;">: “</span>… the lessons we can
learn from the last two or three weeks is that racism is alive and well in South
Africa …”; “the reconciliation process was at the expense of transformation …”
… “in terms of transformation hardly anything was asked of white South Africans
…”; “… white South Africa was not really given the opportunity to engage with
what happened in the past …”; “… the constitutional right to freedom of
association should not be used as a disguise for racism …”.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">In reaction to the previous
comments, two commentators subsequently observed as follows. Giliomee (2008)
asks the question whether Kollapen really thinks that, what Giliomee calls ethnic
cleansing of whites from the government service and semi-government service to
make these institutions more representative of the South African population, was
no “contribution” from the whites. In the same breath he praises Barack Obama
for his view that one should try to understand both black and white anger in
the USA – the first because of injustices of the past and the latter because of
affirmative action. Greyling (2008) points out that Kollapen promotes the idea
of collective guilt when he requires from white people – all white people, and
not only those who supported apartheid – to ask for forgiveness.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">In another article Greyling
(2008a) refers to the view of a prof. Sipho Seepe, who suggests that one can
only “solve” the problem of racism if one can understand it. Greyling doubts
whether it is possible to have a full understanding of the concept at all.
Another important aspect that Greyling mentions is the fact that Seepe views
racism as something that is only experienced by blacks. Contrary to such a
view, Greyling points out examples from the South African society to illustrate
that whites also experience racism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Buys (2008) also distinguishes
between black and white racism. In his view racism under black people is
usually to be found under the black elite, while amongst white people it
manifests itself in the midst of what he calls the “lower levels” of the
community. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">From a black perspective <span class="hl">Lizeka Mda</span>, previously deputy managing editor of the <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Sunday Times</span> and executive editor at <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">The Star</span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> (South African English
newspapers)</span></span>, responding on the most recent South African racial incidents,
made the comment in <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">Rapport</span> (Afrikaans
Sunday newspaper) that “when nonsense was issued, white South Africans were the
foremost recipients”.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Esterhuyse (2008) uses the
metaphors <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">black elephant</span> and <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">white elephant</span> not only to make a distinction
between black and white people, but also to suggest the underlying destructive
force of racism within sections of these communities. He also uses another
metaphor to label the word <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racist</span>: a <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">political sledge-hammer</span> that is used to batter
people, institutions and groups. He also distinguishes between what he calls
naked racism, the practice that considers people of the “other” race as incompetent
and inferior, and subtle (or hidden) racism, when somebody tries to “explain” a
racial incident.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">From the previous comments and remarks
involving the phenomenon racism, an extraction can be made of a few cognitive
principles that are linguistically very significant with regard to the meaning
and understanding of the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span>,
summarized as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The fact that some commentators
consider the judgment of racism from a black as well as a white perspective,
while others consider the practice thereof to be an only white issue and the experience
of racism as an only black concern, suggests that racism relates to vantage
point.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Reference to whites as if they
are all alike (within other contexts reference to blacks as if they are all
similar) lay emphasis on the stereotyping mechanism underlying racism. As such
it relates to the cognitive principle of categorization.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Racism has an instigator as
well as an experient. Mostly an instigated act is judged to be an act of racism
by the experient or an allegedly non-involved observer by way of sympathy,
empathy or moral judgment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The condemnation of the
specific incident that generated the intense debate about racism, by both
whites and blacks, put the accent on the moral basis of the judgment of racism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Due to its complex nature, the category
which the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span> entails, inevitably
gets subcategorized and metaphorized; compare <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">naked
racism</span>; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">subtle racism</span>; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">hidden racism</span>; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">white
racism</span>; <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">black racism</span>; etc.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The diverse nature of the relevant concept,
as illustrated in the previous paragraphs – but also within a broader view,
relates to the fact that onomasiological<a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
and semasiological views with regard to the concept, overlap. Although Taylor
(1995:262) postulates that onomasiological and semasiological views do not
necessarily reflect “mirror images of each other”, he also acknowledges the
fact that a specific linguistic expression is mostly determined by
onomasiological as well as semasiological salience (cf. Dirven and Verspoor,
1999:54). This could perhaps be the reason why some people very often allege
that they experience racism, but fail to label the relevant experience in terms
of defining words. This was clearly illustrated by De Wet (2004) in a research
on educators’ experience of racism in education in South Africa. It was found
that 64% of the respondents in an empirical study abstained from answering the
question <a name="OLE_LINK6"></a><a name="OLE_LINK7"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK6;">“What is racism?” </span></a>– although they alleged that they
experienced racism in their working environment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Whilst the previous discussion mainly
concentrated on a conceptualist view of racism, it is essential for a clearer
understanding of the relevant concept to also verify the meaning of the word <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racism</span> from a semasiological perspective,
examining the different senses of the word in an effort to establish a
prototypical meaning. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Many analyses of the relevant concept fail
to integrate the two approaches efficiently in an effort to establish a working
definition for their assessment of the relevant phenomenon. Some only
concentrate on different lexicographical definitions, whilst others take a
rather intuitive stance, relying mainly on their own conceptualization.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Defining racism<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">A working
definition<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">An ideal working definition should be the
result of a prototype approach in the sense in which Langacker (1987:371) describes
it as “a typical instance of a category, and other elements are assimilated to
the category on the basis of their perceived resemblance to the prototype”. In
this regard one should also bear in mind that there are degrees of membership
based on degrees of similarity, often determined by different cultures and
different contexts.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">But what would be the best instance of <span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism</span> in the same sense that </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "CG Times (W1)",serif;">murder</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "CG Times (W1)",serif;"> is a better example of
the category <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">kill</span> than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">execute</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lie</i> is a better example of the category <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">cheat</span> than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">deceive</i><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">, </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">stride</i>
is a better example of the category <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">walk</span>
than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pace</i>, and<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> grasp</i> is a better example of the category <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">clutch </span>than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hold</i> (cf.
Pulman, 1983:113)? In other words, does the same superordinate-hyponym-relation
exist between <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">racism</i> and a word on a
hyponym-level, functioning as a prototype of the specific category – like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">murder</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">execute</i> are hyponyms of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kill</i>,
etc.? Unfortunately not.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Consequently
it is not strange that Groenewald</span><span lang="EN-US"> (2004:14) points out
that o</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">n a definition of
racism, sociologists differ immensely. This is probably true for many other
disciplines as well, given that so many accusations and denials of racism lead
to a confused comprehension of the relevant concept when people are asked to
define it. She also mentions that there exists some general consensus between
several authors within the specific discipline that there should not be any reason
why the term cannot have different meanings, based on the argument that
accepting too broad a definition renders the term “analytically meaningless”. Such
an approach indeed creates a <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">chameleon,
changing its colours within the contexts it is being used – a typical vantage
point phenomenon. In this regard Groenewald </span></span><span lang="EN-US">(2004:8)
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">suggests that </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">legislators
should understand how different groups define racism, when they promulgate laws
against racism, or else a proposed law will probably not be legitimate in the
eyes of the majority.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Another relevant
aspect that Groenewald </span><span lang="EN-US">(2004:8) </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">mentions, involves the research of
the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC). She regards their inquiry
into racism in the media as probably the most prominent recent study involving
original research on racism in South Africa, at that stage: 2004. They
commissioned the Media Monitoring Project (MMP) to undertake quantitative
research on racism in the media. Although the MMP used stereotypes to measure
racism, they did not define racism explicitly, and conducted their research on
such a fragile basis. Even the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not
concerned with an explicit definition of racism, according to Groenewald (2004:14).
Her conclusion: “It therefore reviews international and local conventions for
regulating and eliminating racism without conceptualizing the term.”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Confronted
with the fact that the SAHRC did not depart from an explicit definition of
racism, they referred to the definition accepted by the International
Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racism and Discrimination <a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK9"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK8;">(ICERD),
according to Groenewald (2004:29). The relevant definition reads as follows: <o:p></o:p></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK9;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK8;"><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">Any
distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based </span></span></span></span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US">on race, colour, descent, or national
or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the
recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and
fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other
field of public life </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">(SAHRC, 2000: 56).</span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Groenewald’s
observations underpin the fact that the concept [</span><span class="MsoSubtleReference"><span lang="EN-US">racism]</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> is mostly dealt with on account of
rather </span><span lang="EN-US">intuitive judgments of the meaning of the
specific linguistic expression representing the concept. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">In search of a
prototype</span></b></span><span class="hl"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The above-mentioned definition of the </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">ICERD also illustrates the
intertwined relationship between the </span><span lang="EN-US">onomasiological
and semasiological perspectives, although in an unsystematic fashion. In spite
of its shortcomings, the application of the deverbalized nouns (<span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">distinction</span><span class="hl"> derived from the verb
</span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">to distinguish, exclusion</span><span class="hl"> derived from the verb </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">to
exclude, restriction</span><span class="hl"> derived from the verb </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">to restrict</span><span class="hl"> and </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">preference</span><span class="hl"> derived from the verb </span><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">to prefer</span><span class="hl">) illustrate a few
important matters. Firstly, the deverbalized nouns imply that racism is the
result of one or other action (deed). This issue wil be returned to. Secondly, the
application of the different </span>deverbalized nouns suggests a
lexicographical (sense-relation) approach, and as such a semasiological
perspective. Very conspicuous is the fact that the word <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">discrimination</span> is not used in a sense-relation
manner within the relevant definition, particularly when one considers the fact
that the research of De Wet (2004) reveals that 88% of the 36% who did answer
the question “What is racism?”, used the word <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">discrimination</span>
to explicate the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Botha (2006:117) argues that due to the
fact that many people use the words <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racism</span>
and <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">discrimination</span> interchangeably, on the
assumption that the one implies the other, substantiates the view that there
exists a close sense relationship between the words <span class="MsoSubtleReference"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-variant: normal !important;">racism</span></i></span> and <span class="MsoSubtleReference"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-variant: normal !important;">discrimination</span></i>. </span>He
also assumes that in many contexts the tie between the two concepts becomes so
close that language users often fail to recognize the fact that the relevant
concept’s relation depends on the principle of unilateral implication (hyponymy);
hence the word <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racism</span> implies
discrimination, but the word <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">discrimination</span>
does not necessarily imply racism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Although it was hypothesized, earlier in
this discussion, that one of the hyponyms on a co-hyponym level generally
functions as a prototype of the relevant superordinate, we find the opposite in
the case of the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span>. The
sense of <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">discrimination</span> is encapsulated by
the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span>. Accordingly <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">discrimination</span> can be considered as the
prototype of <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racism</span>, but with a
reservation: a sense has to be added – in this instance <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racial</span>; therefore <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racial
discrimination</span>, to distinguish it from other kinds of discrimination,
for instance sexism. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">To substantiate the previous claim that <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">discrimination</span> can be considered as the
prototype of <span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis">racism</span><span class="sensecontent1">, Botha (2006) also examines </span>the lexicographical
definitions of the word <span class="1BibChar">racism</span> from six different
English <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">dictionaries<a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>. Compare Botha (2006) for a
detailed discussion.<a name="A1"></a> </span>The concept of differentiation is
implied in all the definitions, explicitly spelled out as “discrimination” in <span class="1BibChar">Merriam-Webster OnLine</span> and <span class="1BibChar">Compact
Oxford English Dictionary</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">.
Consequently one has to investigate the nature of the concept [</span><span class="MsoSubtleReference">discrimination]</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Discrimination
as a prototypical act of racism</span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Although </span><span lang="EN-US">most</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> of the
lexicographical definitions of </span><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">racism</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> refer to racism as a “belief” as
its primary sense, they also refer to some kind of “behaviour” on account of
such a belief as a secondary sense. But it is important to be aware of the fact
that the linguistic expression </span><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">racism</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> is not derived from a verb. One
must also realize that a belief can only manifest itself by way of one or other
act (or deed). Therefore </span><span lang="EN-US">the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span> is exemplified by a more cognitive
convenient concept that could be related to an action by way of its linguistic
manifestation in a root verb, namely <span class="1BibChar">to discriminate</span>.
This also contributes to the fact that<span style="color: #943634;"> </span>the
concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">discrimination]</span> functions on a
prototypical level to unveil the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism].
</span><span class="sensecontent1">Consequently, to have a better understanding
of racism, one should also focus on the root thereof, </span>namely the verb <span class="1BibChar">to discriminate</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">.</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"><span lang="EN-US">Scrutinizing four different dictionaries’ treatment of
the polysemous senses of the verb <span class="1BibChar">to discriminate</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">, Botha (2006:118-120) finds </span>that a
distinction should be drawn between two basic senses of the verb <span class="1BibChar">to</span> <span class="1BibChar">discriminate</span>. The first
sense relates to a basic conceptual action which determines categorization,
something we do when we become aware of the difference <span class="1BibChar">in</span>
or <span class="1BibChar">between</span> entities. <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">In this regard the verb </span><span class="1BibChar">to discriminate</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> entails the practice of categorization, the
most fundamental conceptual experience in thought, perception, action and
speech, according to Lakoff (1987:5). The second (race-related) sense refers to
actions or attitudes: “</span>show partiality (<span class="1BibChar">in favor of</span>)
or prejudice (<span class="1BibChar">against</span>)”<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> (cf.</span> <span class="1BibChar">Webster’s New World Dictionary &
Thesaurus</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">)</span>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The question arises: How does the basic
senses of the verb <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">to discriminate</i>
relate to the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]? <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"><span lang="EN-US">A historical view reveals that a race-related sense of
the verb <span class="1BibChar">to discriminate</span> should not necessarily be
regarded as the primary sense. According to the <span class="1BibChar">Oxford
Talking Dictionary</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> </span>the
first recorded use of the word <span class="1BibChar">discriminate</span> took
place between 1600 – 1629, while t<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">he
first </span>recorded<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> use of a </span>race-related
sense of the verb<span class="1BibChar"> to discriminate</span> took place
between <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">1870 – 1899, and it was only
1930 – 1969</span> that the first recorded use of the word<span class="1BibChar">
racism</span> took place<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">But some dictionaries also differentiate
between the terms <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">racism</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">racialization</i>, although they consider
them as synonyms, regarding <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">racism</i> as
a dated term (cf. <span class="1BibChar">American Heritage Dictionary</span>; <span class="1BibChar">Collins Dictionary of the English language</span><span class="sensecontent1">). Contrary to such a view, </span>Miles (1989), as quoted
by Gullestad (2004:185-186), differentiates between the two terms: “While </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">racialization</span><span lang="EN-US"> is a natural cognitive process, racism is a negative continuation
of that process.” In view of the two basic senses of the verb <span class="1BibChar">to discriminate</span>, referred to in the previous paragraph, the
concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racialization]</span> relates<span class="MsoSubtleReference"> </span>to the first basic sense of the verb <span class="1BibChar">to discriminate</span> while the concept [<span class="MsoSubtleReference">racism]</span> entails the second primary sense of the
relevant verb.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="MsoSubtleEmphasis"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The practice of
racism<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">As was </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">mentioned</span><span lang="EN-US"> previously,
there is no consistency within many monolingual dictionaries with regard to
discrimination as part of the meaning of the word <span class="1BibChar">racism</span>.
They mostly refer to a “belief that races have distinctive … characteristics”
(cf. <span class="1BibChar">Collins English Dictionary</span>), therefore implying
a conceptual process of differentiating. By implication they also admit that a
belief will not be visible without any explicated manifestation. As a result
they suggest an act and also a resulting effect as part of its meaning of the
word; compare: “… <span class="sensecontent1">the resulting unfair treatment of
members of other races …” (</span><span class="1BibChar">Cambridge Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">);<span class="variant1"> </span>“… </span>any program or practice of racial
discrimination, segregation, etc., specif., such a program or practice that
upholds the political or economic domination of one race over another or
others” and “feelings or actions of hatred and bigotry toward a person or
persons because of their race” (<span class="1BibChar">Compact Oxford English
Dictionary</span>); and “discrimination, or antagonism based on this” (i.e.
belief) (<span class="1BibChar">Oxford Talking Dictionary</span>). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Against this background, and assuming that
the two senses of <span class="1BibChar">discrimination</span> (“categorization” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and “race-related actions and attitudes”) can
be considered to relate to <span class="1BibChar">racialization</span> and <span class="1BibChar">racism</span> respectively, the following model is a
modification of Botha’s (2006:126) proposal for a differentiation between neutral
race-related categorization and a prototypical racist act.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjTlP5FInsxgQjr9qgPWIweYW7P7Wc7zkFj2aKp0vPRpt1LqtxRAW_GZNKe6mj-OMYuszPtMfybLM1PS2kUt80vbS7Mgv__vh9qJBVvOKDRSiw1vgQmn1v2nNO_DzGAmCB80wB9coS_sZAd-ym9Amv4CXKNh7p8f560YSNK-vqyae1N9SXfojhEGGQdCA=s3044" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2220" data-original-width="3044" height="293" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjTlP5FInsxgQjr9qgPWIweYW7P7Wc7zkFj2aKp0vPRpt1LqtxRAW_GZNKe6mj-OMYuszPtMfybLM1PS2kUt80vbS7Mgv__vh9qJBVvOKDRSiw1vgQmn1v2nNO_DzGAmCB80wB9coS_sZAd-ym9Amv4CXKNh7p8f560YSNK-vqyae1N9SXfojhEGGQdCA=w403-h293" width="403" /></a></div><br /><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span><p></p>
<br />
<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-color-alt: windowtext;"><br /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-color-alt: windowtext;"><br /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-color-alt: windowtext;"><br /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-color-alt: windowtext;"><br /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-color-alt: windowtext;"><br /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1" style="text-indent: 0in;"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1" style="text-indent: 0in;"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1" style="text-indent: 0in;"><span lang="EN-US">Figure 1</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: 0in;">. Prototypical discriminating act, constituting either racialization
or racism</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Figure 1 represents a dichotomy of
discriminating actions. Both actions originate in the cognitive unconscious,
but they take different routes due to different intentions. Should one have an
unbiased intent, to categorize for conceptual purposes only, then the end
result (effect) will be referential in nature, disclosed by referring
(descriptive) expressions. Such a discriminating act will represent the final
and neutral stage on the continuum: non-racism – racism. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Should the intent be biased, it results
from the fact that the specific individual wants to categorize (on the basis of
racial criteria) to cause individual or collective advantage(s) and/or
disadvantage(s) – physically, socially, culturally, mentally, descriptively or
other. It implies the blend with numerous other conceptual maneuvers:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>adding a specific value; establishing
stereotypes; highlighting category boundaries, etc. Such an intent will be strengthened
by a relative <span class="1BibChar">force</span> – induced by imagined or real
personal, social, cultural, political or other powers – determining the <span class="1BibChar">degree</span> of racist practice.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">As a result a mental and/or physical act
takes place. The nature of the (speech) act determines the degree of racism
that is explicitly expressed or implicated. Therefore it is very often the case
that when a typical racism mechanism like stereotyping is applied, not only
stereotyping as such manifests racism, but also the underlying speech act. Compare
for example Kollapen’s words in (1), repeated here as (7):<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(7)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“in terms of transformation hardly anything
was asked of white South Africans …”; “… white South Africa was not really
given the opportunity to engage with what happened in the past …”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">This is not only a racist act on account of
the stereotyping of whites, but it is also an underlying racist act owing to its
speech act nature: an accusation directed to white people as such. In this
regard it should be mentioned that an act (deed<a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>)
is a very complex phenomenon – and if we assume that an act (deed) is an
implicit semantic feature of the the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">racism</i>,
then it is not difficult to understand why people have so many different
conceptualizations of the relevant word.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The effect of a prototypical racist act is beneficial
and/or disadvantageous to specific individuals and/or groups with respect to
personal, emotional, social, cultural and other relevant experiences. The model
in figure 1 shows that the effect of the relevant act manifests itself on a
continuum. On account of such a continuum one could distinguish degrees of
racism, such as a non-racism, subtle racism, mild racism and harsh racism. Gullestad
(2004:186) doubts whether racialization in a neutral sense is possible when she
postulates: <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Interpretations of differences are not
universal, but emerge in historically specific processes as human beings give
meaning to what goes on around them. When some physical features appear as
particularly visible, it is not only due to the features themselves, but to
historically specific frames of interpretation that have become self-evident
and self-explanatory for many people. Visibility, in the sense of prominent features
that are invested with particular meanings, is not natural and universal but is
historically specific and culturally produced and reproduced through fleeting
and shifting negotiations.” Her interpretation is indeed acceptable, but only
when one considers the distinction between racialization and racism as absolute
– and not a matter of degree!<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">phenomenon</span><span lang="EN-US"> racism
undeniably constitutes a very complex concept on account of the fact that
people within different contexts conceptualize it differently. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">previous</span><span lang="EN-US"> discussion
emphasized some of the key issues with regard to such a conceptual confusion.
One of the main reasons involves the fact that the noun <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">racism</i> is not derived from a specific verb, although accusations of
racism mostly depend on experiences of acts (therefore explicated by specific
verbs) of alleged racism. Such acts are so diverse in nature that it is
impossible to give an inventory of possible verbs denoting possible racist
actions. Even t</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">he
ICERD’s definition of racism implies alleged racism verbs (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">to distinguish</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">to</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">exclude</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">to restrict</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">to prefer</i>)
that have no relation to racism at all when it is viewed out of context. Contrary
to such a definition many people, on an intuitive basis, experience racism as a
kind of discrimination – although many lexicographical definitions do not
formulate it as such.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">For
whatever reason it should be necessary to define or describe the concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racism] – </span>political, scientific,
religious, etc. – this article takes the view that a systematic and
comprehensive linguistic account should motivate it. In this regard there
should exist an awareness of the fact that </span><span lang="EN-US">onomasiological
as well as semasiological approaches – and an intertwined relation between the
two approaches – contribute to a full understanding of the relevant concept; that
the concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racism]</span> implies an
underlying verb of action, first and foremost the verb <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">discriminate</i>; that a distinction can be drawn between the concepts
[<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racialization]</span> and [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racism]</span>, and that these two concepts merge
on the basis of </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">discriminatory</span><span lang="EN-US"> experiences
reflected on a continuum.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Should this not happen, one finds
contradictions such as the following. In explicitly dealing with the
“racism-relevant” concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">equality],</span>
the South African Constitution implicitly condones certain kinds of
discrimination, formulated as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(8)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">“The state may not unfairly
discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds,
including race<a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>,
gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual
orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language
and birth.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span lang="EN-US">No person may unfairly discriminate directly or
indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds in terms of
subsection (3). National legislation must be enacted to prevent or
prohibit unfair discrimination.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Discrimination on
one or more of the grounds listed in subsection (3) is unfair unless it is
established that the discrimination is fair”.<a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Contrary to that </span><span style="layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">a </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Bill of Rights protects the defined rights of every
citizen, with a guarantee, amongst others, of nonracism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Should all the
confusions about the concept [<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">racism]</span>
be taken into consideration – and the fact that vantage point plays a very
important role with regard to the understanding of the relevant concept – one
can indeed conclude that racism is an omnipresent chameleon!</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="variant1"><span lang="EN-US">References<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Accent Software International.
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Act 108 of 1996. 1996. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Constitution of the Republic of South
Africa</i>, Chapter 1: Bill of Rights.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">AHD (<span class="1BibChar">American
Heritage Dictionary</span>): see under Microsoft.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Botha, Willem J. 2001. “The
Deictic Foundation of Ideology, with Reference to the African Renaissance”. In
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Ideology. Volume II: Descriptive Cognitive Approaches</span>. Amsterdam and
Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 51 – 76.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Botha, Willem J. 2004. “Betekeniservaring
en betekenisgesag van die woordeboek”. <span class="1BibChar">Journal for
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38/1, June 2004, 130 – 142. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Botha, Willem J. 2004a. “The semantics
of transformation”. 2004. CD-publication –<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span class="1BibChar">Identity and Creativity in Language Education</span>.
Proceedings of the 21st World Congress of the World Federation of Modern
Language Associations / Fédération Internationale des Professeurs de Langues
Vivantes (FIPLV), 2 – 5 July 2003, RAU, Johannesburg, South Africa. ISBN
0-620-31884-8. Publisher: RAU.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-ZA" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Botha, Willem J. 2006. “Aspects of the meaning of the word <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">racism</span>”. In C. van der Walt (ed.), <span class="1BibChar">Living through languages</span>. <span class="1BibChar">An African
tribute to René Dirven</span>. Stellenbosch: Sun Press, 115 – 129.</span><span lang="EN-ZA" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-ZA" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Botha, Willem J. 2006a. </span><span lang="NL" style="mso-ansi-language: NL;">Die aard van die daad: wat dóén Germanicus (nie) ... en waarom (nie)? </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-ZA" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;">Journal for Language Teaching</span></i><span lang="EN-ZA" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;"> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tydskrif
vir Taalonderrig</i> 40/1, June 2006, 164 – 176.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Botha, Willem J. 2007. “Linguistic
mechanisms of power and force: two case studies”. <span class="1BibChar">Cognitive
Linguistics</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">: </span><span class="1BibChar">New Problems of Cognition</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> 5</span>, Moscow, 14 – 20.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Buys, Flip. 2008. “Só ontmagtig
transformasie baie swart mense”. <span class="1BibChar">Rapport</span>, 16 March
2008, p. 20.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">Cambridge
Advanced Learner's Dictionary</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. 2008. <u><a href="http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=65090&dict=CALD"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=65090&dict=CALD</span></a></u>.
Accessed April 2008<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="sensecontent1"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="file:///G:/A%202008/C%20Navorsing/D%20Rusland-artikel/D%20Manuskrip/D@dalos%20education%20server%20-%20Human%20Rights:%20Advanced%20subject%20of%20apartheid"><span style="color: windowtext; font-style: normal; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">D@dalos education server</span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> - Human Rights: Advanced subject of apartheid</span></a></span></i><span class="sensecontent1"><span lang="EN-US">. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="http://www.dadalos.org/int/Menschenrechte/Grundkurs_MR5/Apartheid/Apartheid/Chronologie/chronologie.htm.%20Accessed%20March%202008"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://www.dadalos.org/int/Menschenrechte/Grundkurs_MR5/Apartheid/Apartheid/Chronologie/chronologie.htm</span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">. Accessed March 2008</span></a></span><a name="OLE_LINK3"><span class="sensecontent1"><span lang="EN-US">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></a></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">De Wet, Corene. 2004. Opvoeders se
ervaring oor rassisme in die onderwys. <span class="1BibChar">Tydskrif vir
Geesteswetenskappe</span> 44-1: 28-37. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dirven, René & Marjolijn Verspoor (eds.). 1999. <span class="1BibChar">Cognitieve inleiding tot taal en taalwetenschap</span>. Leuven /
Amersfoort: Acco.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"></span>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Eksteen, L.C. 1997. <span class="1BibChar">Groot woordeboek</span> / <span class="1BibChar">Major Dictionary</span>
(fourteenth edition). Pharos electronic copy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Esterhuyse, Willie. 2008.
“Katvoet vir dié grootvoet<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>op kantoor”. <span class="1BibChar">Sakeforum</span>, <span class="1BibChar">Sake 24</span>, <span class="1BibChar">Beeld</span>, 14 March 2008, p. 8.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">17.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner.
1996. “Blending as a central process of grammar”. In A. Goldberg (ed.), <span class="1BibChar">Conceptual Structure, Discourse and Language</span>. Stanford,
Calif.: CSLI Publications, 113-187.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">18.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Gullestad, Marianne. 2004.
“Blind slaves of our prejudices: debating ‘culture’ and ‘race’ in Norway”. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ETHNOS</i> 69:2: 177-203.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US">Giliomee,
Hermann. 2008. “Regstel-aksie ‘nouliks iets’?” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Beeld-Forum</i>. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Beeld</i>, 20
March 2008, p. 22.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">19.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Greyling, Ferdi. 2008.
“Kollapen moet ook jammer sê”. <span class="1BibChar">Beeld-Forum</span>. <span class="1BibChar">Beeld</span>, 28 March 2008, p. 22.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">20.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Greyling, Ferdi. 2008a. “As
deur toeslaan, tel velkleur nie”. <span class="1BibChar">Beeld-Forum</span>. <span class="1BibChar">Beeld</span>, 29 February 2008, p. 16.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">21.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Groenewald, Liela. 2004. <span class="1BibChar">Experiencing racism</span>. Mini-dissertation submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Magister Artium in
Sociology, Rand Afrikaans University. <u><a href="http://etd.rau.ac.za/theses/available/etd-11302004-083745/restricted/ExperiencingRacismLielaGroenewald.pdf"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://etd.rau.ac.za/theses/available/etd-11302004-083745/restricted/ExperiencingRacismLielaGroenewald.pdf</span></a></u>.
Accessed April 2008.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">22.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Hanks, Patrick (ed.). 1979. <span class="1BibChar">Collins Dictionary of the English language</span>. London &
Glasgow: Collins.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">23.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kollapen, Jody. 2008. “Racism
‘alive and well in South Africa’”. <span class="1BibChar">Mail & Guardian
Online</span>. 2008. <u><a href="http://www.mg.co.za/articlepage.aspx?area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__national/&articleid=334437&referrer=RSS"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://www.mg.co.za/articlepage.aspx?area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__national/&articleid=334437&referrer=RSS</span></a></u>.
Accessed March 2008.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">24.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Lakoff, George. 1987. <span class="1BibChar">Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about
the Mind</span>. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">25.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Langacker, R.W. 1987. <span class="1BibChar">Foundations of cognitive grammar</span>. Stanford: Stanford
University Press.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">26.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Learning Company. 1998. <span class="1BibChar">Oxford Talking Dictionary</span>. London (electronic copy).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">27.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mda, Lizeka. 2008. “Van erg na
veel erger met rassisme”. <span class="1BibChar">Rapport</span>, 2 March 2008, p.
16.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">28.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">Merriam-Webster
OnLine</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. 2008. <u><a href="http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/racism"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/racism</span></a></u>.
Accessed April 2008.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">29.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Miles, Robert. 1989. <span class="1BibChar">Racism</span>. London: Routledge (referred to by Gullestad,
2004).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">30.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Microsoft. 1996. <span class="1BibChar">Excerpts from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language</span>, Third Edition © 1996 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Electronic
version licensed from INSO Corporation. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">31.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">Compact
Oxford English Dictionary</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. 2006. <u><a href="http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/racism?view=uk"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/racism?view=uk</span></a></u>.
Accessed April 2008.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">32.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pulman, S.G. 1983. <span class="1BibChar">Word meaning and belief</span>. London & Canberra: Croom
Helm.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">33.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">SAHRC. 2000. <span class="1BibChar">Faultlines</span>: <span class="1BibChar">Inquiry into Racism in
the Media</span>. Johannesburg: SAHRC (as quoted by Groenewald, 2004).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">34.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Rautenbach, Ignatius M. and Erasmus
F. J. Malherbe. 1998. <span class="1BibChar">Wat sê die Grondwet? </span>Pretoria:
J. L. van Schaik.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">35.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Taylor, John R. 1995. <span class="1BibChar">Linguistic Categorization</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. <span class="1BibChar">Prototypes in Linguistic Theory</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">36.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Taylor, John R. 2002. <span class="1BibChar">Cognitive Grammar</span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: 35.45pt 42.55pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 17.85pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">37.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US">The Citizen</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. 2008. </span><span lang="EN-US">Opinion
articles tagged ‘University of the Free State’. They urinate on the rainbow nation.
<u><a href="http://www.citizen.co.za/index/keysection.aspx?section=Opinion&kw=University%20of%20the%20Free%20State"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://www.citizen.co.za/index/keysection.aspx?section=Opinion&kw=University%20of%20the%20Free%20State</span></a></u>.
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Accessed March 2008.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span class="1BibChar"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-left: 2.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -2.85pt;"><a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>The <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">onomasiological</span> approach to
meaning investigates the relationship of a concept with regard to different
words used to refer to the relevant concept, while the semasiological approach
examines the different senses of a word (cf. Dirven and Verspoor, 1999:31-59).<span style="color: #002060;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-left: 2.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -2.85pt;"><a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Cambridge
Advanced Learner's Dictionary</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">;
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Compact Oxford English Dictionary</i>; </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Encarta World English Dictionary</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">; </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Merriam-Webster OnLine</i>; <i>Oxford</i><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Talking Dictionary</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">;</span><i>
Webster’s New World Dictionary & Thesaurus</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Examining
the radial network of the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">deed</i>,
Botha (2006a) accentuates the complexity of its semantic nature. Compare Botha
(2006a).<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 8.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -8.5pt;"><a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">This paper is only concerned with the
concept <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">race</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 8.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -8.5pt;"><a href="file:///E:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%20000%20Data%202021/D%20Navorsing/D%20Algemeen/Racism%20an%20omnipresent%20chameleon.doc#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Act 108 of 1996: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa</i>, 1996, Chapter 1:
Bill of Rights, p. 7.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
</div>Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-37448038675088442132020-10-08T17:36:00.000+02:002020-10-08T17:36:08.409+02:00<p><b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The linguistics of
racism</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Paper read on 5
July 2005 at a conference of the International Society for Political Psychology
in Toronto, Canada<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.
Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Racism
in South Africa is alive and well! That is at least the impression one gets
when one opens a daily newspaper and takes notice of the frequency of the word <i>racism</i>
(and related words) that appear in news and in-depth articles. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Ironically,
post-apartheid South Africa is supposed to be ridden from the practices of
racism - especially when one takes into account the fact that the South African
Constitution deals explicitly with the "racism-relevant" concept
equality. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">But
the essence of the problem lies, in my view, in the formulation of the relevant
articles 9 (3), (4) & (5), reading as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>9. (3) The state <span style="color: red;">may
not unfairly discriminate</span><span style="color: black;"> directly or
indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender, sex,
pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation,
age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 23.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -23.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(4) No person </span><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">may
unfairly discriminate</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"> directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds in
terms of subsection (3). National legislation must be enacted to prevent or
prohibit unfair discrimination.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 23.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -23.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(5) <span style="color: red;">Discrimination</span><span style="color: black;"> on one or more of the grounds listed in subsection (3)</span><span style="color: red;"> is unfair unless it is established that the discrimination
is fair</span><span style="color: black;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Although
the principle of fair discrimination is also accepted in other communities, for
instance the Dutch community - in which case it is called "positieve
discriminatie" (positive discrimination) - the essence of the problem lies
in the principle itself, as it is reflected by the adjectives <i>fair</i> and <i>unfair</i>
and the noun <i>discrimination</i> with regard to the practices of racism - but
most importantly, in the way people understand these concepts pertaining to its
linguistic use and its relevant communicative and social practices. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Should
semantic criteria be taken into consideration, the adjective <i>fair </i>falls
within the class <i>adjectives of judgement</i>. As such its meaning does not
suggest factuality. Consequently, individual judgement will determine many
different readings of the sense of the relevant word. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Another
complicating factor with regard to the adjective <i>fair</i> involves the fact
the experience of its meaning reflects the conceptualizer's moral judgement on
account of a certain fairness metaphorical model (cf. Lakoff & Johnson,
1999:297). With regard to the model of equality of distribution Lakoff &
Johnson (1999:297) rightly illustrates the complexity of the fairness concept
in the following words:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 14.15pt; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">"(T)here
are a myriad of cases in which people generally agree on the necessity of some
procedural rules of distribution, but find at times that following those 'fair'
procedures results in a distribution of goods or opportunities that conflicts
with their sense of rights-based fairness or equality of distribution fairness.
In such cases there is typically no overarching neutral conception of fairness
that can resolve the conflict of values."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
this regard fairness could lead to what Gullestad (2004:187) calls "racism
in the name of the good".<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Within
the limits of this paper racism in relation to morality can not be dealt with
furthermore. The next section will therefore focus on the parameters of this
talk.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
Theoretical framework and structure<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Against
the background of the above-mentioned principle, I will scrutinize aspects of
the concept racism from a cognitive linguistic view. The analysis will be done
in view of two general theoretical assumptions within cognitive linguistics,
that is:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.
The conceptualist approach to meaning renders more viable analytical mechanisms
than the language-world approach and the language internal-approach - although
the language internal-approach will be taken into consideration when the
dictionary descriptions of the relevant concept is scrutinized.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
Language structure provides important evidence about fundamental mental
phenomena which have general psychological importance, and which are founded on
linguistic evidence, such as force dynamics, image schemas, subjective versus
objective construal, correspondence across cognitive domains, and<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>cognitive reference point - cf. Langacker
(1993:1).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This paper will be structured as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.
A few dictionary definitions of the word <i>racism</i> will be examined.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
A distinction will be made between the words <i>racialization</i> and <i>racism</i>.
Reference will be made to the imprint of racism by virtue of underlying image
schemas and categorizing mechanisms.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.
The fundamental nature of racism will be scrutinized on account of a prototypical
act of racism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b>3. Dictionary definitions of the word <i>racism<o:p></o:p></i></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Departing
from a <b>language-internal approach</b>, an analysis of the definitions of the
word <i>racism</i> from three different <b>dictionaries</b> reveals a rather
complex conceptual structure. In this regard the following observations can be
put forward:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.
The word <i>racism</i> embraces concepts associated with words like <i>prejudice</i>,
<i>animosity</i>, <i>belief</i>, <i>adherence to</i>, <i>advocacy</i>, <i>doctrine</i>,
<i>program</i>, <i>practice</i>, <i>feeling</i> and <i>action</i> on the
presumption that people are to be differentiated on account of different
characteristics which are manifestations of superiority or inferiority. It is
also assumed that the conceptual contents of words like <i>prejudice</i>, <i>discrimination</i>
and <i>antagonism</i> link with the relevant concept.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
It appears that there exists no lexical interrelationship between the word <i>racism</i>
and the associated words, merely because they are not associated on account of
equivalence of meaning (synonymy), or as a result of opposite meanings
(antonymy), nor meaning inclusiveness (hyponymy). [It does not imply that the
relevant word does not belong to other lexical networks.] This phenomenon could
be one of the reasons that in a 2004-research on educator's experience of
racism in education (in South Africa), it was found that 64% of the respondents
in an empirical study abstained from answering the question "What is
racism?" (cf. De Wet, 2004:28). The same research also revealed that 88%
of the 36% who did answer the question, used the word <i>discrimination</i>
(cf. De Wet, 2004:31) to explicate the relevant concept. From a linguistic
point of view, this finding illustrates a basic cognitive principle: we tend to
exemplify (understand) more abstract concepts in terms of more specific
concepts - in this instance an action. In other words: racism is not an
act(ion); but to discriminate is - to be precise, the word <i>racism</i> does
not have a verb correlate, but <i>discrimination</i> has: <i>to discriminate</i>.
Incidentally, this linguistic feature applies to perhaps the most - if not all
- -<i>ism</i>-words, for instance <i>capitalism</i>; <i>communism</i>; <i>socialism</i>;
etc.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.
Discrimination as a prototypical act of racism<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
previous assertion, namely that the concept racism is exemplified by a more
cognitive convenient concept that could be related to an action by way of its
linguistic manifestation in a root verb, is implicitly revealed in most
lexicographical definitions of the word <i>racism</i> - since the phenomenon
'racism' primarily deals with differences. But differences have to be brought
to the fore by an action! From this point of view one could deduct that the
concept discrimination functions on a prototypical level to unveil the concept
racism. This view is supported by the Van Dale (Dutch) dictionary which
considers the sense "discrimination owing to race" as one of the
fundamental lexicographical definitions of the word <i>racism</i>. If this is
the case, a more fundamental investigation should turn the focus to the root,
namely the verb <i>to discriminate</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.1. Polysemous
senses of the verb <i>to discriminate</i> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">An
examination of different dictionaries' treatment of the polysemous senses of
the verb <i>to discriminate</i> discloses a rather irregular semantic pattern.
Within lexicographical practice three major ordering patterns exist to arrange
these senses, namely on historical grounds, primary vs. secondary meanings and
empirical analysis (referring to the frequency of the relevant word's use). The
<i>Webster's New World Dictionary & Thesaurus</i> differentiates between
the transitive and intransitive uses of the relevant verb, listing the senses
respectively as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"<b>1</b> <i>v.t.</i> to constitute a
difference between; differentiate. <i>v.t.</i> <b>2 </b>to recognize the
difference between; distinguish. <i>v.i.</i> <b>1</b> to see the difference (<i>between</i>
things); distinguish. <i>v.i</i>. <b>2</b> to be discerning. <i>v.i</i>. <b>3</b>
to make distinctions in treatment; show partiality (<i>in favor of</i>) or
prejudice (<i>against</i>)."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
<i>Oxford Talking Dictionary</i> follows a similar model; compare:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">"<b>1 </b><i>v.t.</i>
Make or constitute a difference in or between; distinguish, differentiate. E17.
<b>2 </b><i>v.t.</i> Distinguish with the mind; perceive the difference in or
between. M17. <b>3 </b><i>v.i.</i> Make or recognize a distinction, esp. a fine
one; provide or serve as a distinction; exercise discernment. L18. <b>4 </b><i>v.i.</i>
Make a distinction in the treatment of different categories of people or
things, esp. unjustly or prejudicially <i>against</i> people on grounds of
race, colour, sex, social status, age, etc. L19."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
<i>Encarta World English Dictionary</i> also distinguishes three senses, but
contrary to the previous dictionaries, it puts the race-related sense first -
consequently, and presumably, the primary sense, according to this dictionary: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">"<b>1 </b><i>intransitive
verb</i> <b>treat group unfairly because of prejudice:</b> to treat one person
or group worse than others or better than others, usually because of a
prejudice about race, ethnic group, age group, religion, or gender. <b>2</b> <i>intransitive
and transitive verb</i> <b>discern difference:</b> to recognize or identify a
difference · <i>could not discriminate between red and green</i>.<i> </i><b>3</b>
<i>intransitive verb</i> <b>be aware of differences:</b> to pay attention to
subtle differences and exercise judgment and taste."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
<i>Van Dale Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal</i> (Dutch Dictionary)
distinguishes two senses, and in accordance with the <i>Encarta World English
Dictionary</i>, they consider the race-related sense as the primary one.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">"<b>1</b>
discriminatie toepassen ten opzichte van, niet gelijk behandelen <i>de Chinezen
in Maleisië voelen zich gediscrimineerd</i>. <b>2</b> tussen twee gelijkende
voorwerpen onderscheiden <i>een microscoop met een uitstekend discriminerend
vermogen</i>."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>First recorded uses of the basic senses of
the verb <i>to discriminate</i> and the noun <i>racism<o:p></o:p></i></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
we examine, from a historical point of view, the first recorded uses of certain
senses of the words <i>to discriminate</i> and <i>racism</i>, some uncertainty
arises regarding the fact that a race-related sense of the verb <i>to
discriminate</i> should be regarded as the primary one; compare the following
historical facts in connection with different senses, according to the <i>Oxford
Talking Dictionary</i>:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.
The first recorded use of the word <i>discriminate</i> took place between 1600
- 1629.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 12.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -12.85pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
The first recorded use of a race-related sense of the verb<i> to discriminate</i>
took place between 1870 - 1899.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 12.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -12.85pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.
The first recorded use of the word<i> racism</i> took place between 1930 -
1969.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Distinction between the basic senses of
the verb <i>to discriminate<o:p></o:p></i></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
previous analysis suggests that a distinction should be drawn between two basic
senses of the verb <i>to</i> <i>discriminate</i>. The first sense relates to a
basic conceptual action which determines categorization, something we do when
we become aware of the difference <b>in</b> or <b>between</b> entities,
something we do when we "distinguish with the mind" (<i>Oxford
Talking Dictionary</i>). It is important to notice the use of the prepositions <i>in</i>
and <i>between</i> in this description. In this regard, the verb <i>to
discriminate</i> entails the practice of categorization, the most fundamental
conceptual experience in thought, perception, action and speech, according to
Lakoff (1987:5), explicated by him as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">"Every time
we see something as a <i>kind</i> of thing … we are categorizing. Whenever we
reason about <i>kinds</i> of things … we are employing categories." <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
second (race-related) sense refers to actions or attitudes with regard to the
prepositions <i>for</i> or <i>against</i>, as described by the <i>Webster's New
World Dictionary & Thesaurus</i> as "show partiality (<i>in favor of</i>)
or prejudice (<i>against</i>)".<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.4.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The relationship between the basic senses
of the verb <i>to discriminate</i> and the concept racism<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
previous distinction links with different approaches Gullestad (2004:177-203)
discusses with regard to the definition of racism. She examines two
anthropologists' definitions of racism as applied to contemporary Norwegian
society. Relevant for this discussion is the view of Inger-Lise Lien (1996 - as
mentioned by Gullestad, 2004), and the way in which Lien (Lien, 1997 - as
discussed in Gullestad, 2004:185-186) sees it according to Miles' (1989)
definition, differentiating between the concepts racialization and racism:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">"While
racialization is a natural cognitive process, racism is a negative continuation
of that process."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
concept racialization relates to the first basic sense of the verb <i>to
discriminate</i>, referred to in the previous paragraph, while the concept
racism entails the second primary sense of the relevant verb.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">In<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>this respect Gullestad (2004:186) has serious
doubts whether the fact that people merely notice differences (the cognitive
process referred to as <i>racialization</i>, for instance black and white skin
color), can be considered a natural cognitive process. She postulates: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">"Interpretations
of differences are not universal, but emerge in historically specific processes
as human beings give meaning to what goes on around them. When some physical
features appear as particularly visible, it is not only due to the features
themselves, but to historically specific frames of interpretation that have
become self-evident and self-explanatory for many people. Visibility, in the
sense of prominent features that are invested with particular meanings, is not
natural and universal but is historically specific and culturally produced and
reproduced through fleeting and shifting negotiations."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
observation relates to MacLaury's (1991:59) viewpoint that the selective
emphasis on the <b>prototype choice</b> (of a category) is determined by
vantage point - therefore also extended to a certain cultural frame; as a
result "(d)ifferent individuals place importance on distinct attributes of
the members of a category. Conse-quently, they select different members as
prototypical, they rank members at different values, and they contract or
dilate a category to different extents." This phenomenon is also evident
when a paradigm (category) is conceptually reduced to such an extent that it
results in stereotyping, "a conventional idea associated with a word,
which might well be inaccurate", according to Lakoff (1987:168).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Stereotyping
usually underlies the act of discrimination on a racial basis.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">5.
A racial imprint<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Both
the views of Gullestad and MacLaury tie with one of the fundamental findings in
cognitive linguistics, namely the fact that many (abstract) concepts relate to
image schemas, which are preconceptual gestalts within the cognitive
unconscious. They are acquired by way of our bodily experience of the physical
world we live in. Repeated experiences of related spatial and force phenomena
create these gestalts - gestalts that are linguistically manifested. Compare
how the container image schema enables us to talk of both concrete and abstract
containers: <i>in the box</i> vs. <i>in trouble</i>. One of our very basic
spatial experiences relates to proximity, and the schema that is based on this
experience, is called the proximity schema. In view of the experience of
proximity, one has a <i>closer</i> relationship to comforting entities and
situations, and a <i>more distant</i> relation to discomforting entities and
situations. Taylor (1995:134) maintains that the "degree of emotional
involvement and the possibility of mutual influence are understood in terms of
proximity".<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Against
this background I want to assume that in a country like South Africa, where an
official (racist) policy of apartheid was created and maintained for almost
fifty years, the proximity schema had an important influence on many
individuals' categorical (group) development. Legislation based on racial
segregation enabled this principle - with its <i>closer to </i>as well as its <i>more
distant</i> experiences - to be manifested in the social lifes of individuals,
to such an extent that one can easily speak of the existence of a racial
imprint in the cognitive setup of both black and white people. The fact that De
Wet's (2004:28-37) research reveals that both black and white people still
experience racism in education, in spite of the stipulations of the
Constitution and efforts to build a non-racial society, in some sense supports
this view. Although, merely judged on perception, one notices a big difference
between the way adults and children accept each other on the basis of race
since 1994. Children of different racial backgrounds tend to be more adaptable,
and although most adults really persist in efforts to maintain good racial
relations, the undertones of racism are very often perceived in potential
stereotyping situations triggered by emotional incentives. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
previous assumption also rests on another basic mental phenomenon, namely the
way in which we construe meaning in a subjectivised or objectivised way.
Children, these days, experience the concept of race in a more subjectivised
way, to such an extent that they are presumably mostly unaware of the fact that
strict conceptual boundaries for the category 'race' could exist. Contrary to
this categorical experience adults' views may still be objectivised in many
instances - in other words they accept, but they are still very aware of firm
differences based on a developed prejudiced view. Such an attitude is very
often revealed by emotional experiences of some kind - experiences that relate
to category membership.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
awareness of race on the basis of the above mentioned experiences relate to the
concepts racialization and racism. Racialization implies a subjectivised
experience of race, while racism entails an objectivised experience of race,
adding (almost certainly stereotyped on account of pre-conceptual schemas)
values to differences.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 9.35pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -9.35pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">6.
Conclusion: the concept racism as a conceptual blend<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">To
endeavour a conclusion some of the previous assumptions need to be reiterated.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
concept RACISM implies a conceptual blend of many different kinds of actions.
The primary action that reveals racism, is exemplified by the verb <i>to
discriminate. </i>Examination of<i> </i>the dictionary meanings of this verb
reveals two basic senses:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Firstly, it means to categorize, to apply
boundaries in order to place different kinds of entities in different kinds of
paradigms on account of certain differentiating criteria. Such a mental action
is a normal conceptualizing action.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
second sense involves the experience of another kind of mental action that
blends with the first one: to add a value to the relevant category. Should this
value be based on racial criteria, one could consider it to be a racist intend.
But values as such derive from different conceptual blends from a specific
experiential frame that involves historical, cultural, social, personal and
many other kinds of variables. When Gullestad (2004:186) mentions
"interpretation", she actually merges two conceptual operations:
categorizing is the first mental operation; adding a value to the category
constitutes a next operation. She only mentions the second one. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">As
was mentioned previously, our ability to categorize is the most fundamental
mental process in order to make sense of the world we live in, or to give
meaning to what we experience. To add a value to a category is just one of many
cognitive (also blending) mechanisms we use to manoeuvre a category
conceptually. Other mechanisms involve, inter alia, establishing the prototype
or prototype schema of a category, determining the resemblance of other
category members to the prototype, and to highlight or weaken the boundaries of
a category.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">With
regard to racism we can accentuate two variables that determine, in my view,
the degree of racist practice. Perhaps one should rather label racism on
account of this criterion (the relative effect of racism), rather than the
traditional eclectic distinction that is made with regard to the status of the
individuals who practice racism and/or to the context it has an effect on:
institutionalised (structural), non-institutionalised (individual) and cultural
racism. The two views I wish to mention, are:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.
The way in which one manoeuvres a category conceptually on account of a racial
criterion, determines the degree of racism one practices. Stereotyping is an
example of such a manoeuvre. In such occasions prejudice - perhaps on account
of isolated experiences - may play a dominant role. The outcome in such
instances may be mild or severe, depending on the status of the racist
practitioner or the nature and intensity of the speech act accompanying the
racist intend. Should it be racist legislation, like in the previous apartheid
South Africa, the racist outcome is very harsh. But even without legislation,
stereotyping by a head of state could have a very intense outcome. The way in
which racial boundaries are conceptualized, is another intensifying factor. While
apartheid South Africa was an example of the application of the
strict-boundary-principle, post-apartheid South Africa is not without it. It
can be argued that affirmative action, black empowerment, and even
transformation as such, rest on this principle. If a minister (of sport)
explicitly states that "ethnic blacks" should be the ones who should
be benefited the most, then there is little doubt whether it could be
considered a racist action.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 12.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -12.85pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
The relative power one has access to, determines the degree of racism one can
practice. Legislative power and the way it is executed would obviously be the
most vigorous mechanism for the itensity of racist practices. Apartheid South
Africa was a good example of such authoritative racist practices - even in linguistic
disguise, using synonyms like the following to give a milder image of the
concept: <i>separate development</i>, <i>pluralism</i>, etc. Judging the views
of different commentators with regard to post-apartheid South Africa, one gets
the impression that in many instances the practice of racism presently goes in
the disguise of words and phrases like <i>affirmative action</i>, <i>black
empowerment</i>, <i>black ethnicity</i> - and even <i>transformation</i>. What
one has to take cognisance of, is the fact that the word used can have a
weakening or strengthening effect on the impression of the action it refers to.
A very interesting phenomenon in this regard is revealing itself presently.
Although the government is predominantly black, and the ruling party (the ANC)
comes from a black freedom movement, and they are the people who have the power
to apply transformation with all its implications, they still accuse white people
of racism, while many white people accuse the present rulers of racism owing to
the discriminating practices of transformation, affirmative action, black
empowerment, implementation of quota systems, creating a work force which will
represent the demographic image of the country, etc. - which they not only have
the power to practice, but which they are allowed to do under the auspices of
the Bill of Rights in the Constitution (as was explicated in the introduction
of this paper). This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that many smaller
domains of empowerment are still controlled by white people - white people who
are still in managerial positions, white people who still have economic and
financial power, white people who still have educational power, etc., although
the public realm is not a white public space anymore (to use the words of
Gullestad, 2004:187).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Against
the background of the previous discusssion I venture, in conclusion, the
following model to present a prototypical act of racism on account of the
distinction between racialization and racism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Figure 1: <i>Prototypical
discriminating act, constituting either racialization or racism</i><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">.....................</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-45786533901220317202019-04-30T15:14:00.000+02:002019-04-30T15:25:12.187+02:00Oor taal - 'n meningstuk<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Oor
taal – ’n meningstuk<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Die vraag word dikwels gestel: Wat is
taal? ’n Leke-antwoord sou wees dat taal ’n kommunikasiemiddel / -medium is.
Dit is waar, maar dit is slegs ’n baie klein gedeeltetjie van die waarheid. ’n Raker
beskrywing sou wees: Dit is óók ’n kommunikasiemedium.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Taal is abstrak en die woord <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i> verwys na hierdie abstraksie. ’n Meer
tegniese beskrywing sou wees om die woord <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i>
as ’n ontologiese metafoor te beskryf. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Wat beteken dit?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Na die voorbeeld van (ons ervaring van
/ kennis van) konkrete entiteite (sake / dinge) wat in die reële wêreld
bestaan, hanteer ons taal as ’n reële entiteit (saak / ding). Die betekenis van
die woord <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ontologie</i> kan as “kennisleer”
beskryf word. Die metafoorstatus van <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i>
kan dus soos volg voorgestel word: “taal = ’n konkrete saak / ding / entiteit”.
Op grond van ons kennis van konkrete sake / dinge / entiteite kan ons dus ook
van taal praat as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">my</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ons</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">die</i> / ... ens. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i>;
selfs van ’n <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lewende</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dooie</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">uitgestorwe</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">onderdrukkende</i>
/ ... ens. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i>, indien ons die
metafoor verder wil verpersonifieer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Op grond van die metafoor-aard van die
woord <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i> gebeur dit dan ook dat
taal toegeëien word deur die gebruik van besitlike voornaamwoorde soos <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">my</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ons</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">julle</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hulle</i> ... ensovoorts in verbinding met die woord <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i>, as sou taal besit word. Die
besitlikheid van besitlike voornaamwoord is eintlik ’n verkeerde interpretasie waar
dit gebruik word in verhouding tot die woord <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i>, want <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">taal word deur
niemand besit nie</b>. Ons sou hoogstens kon sê ons <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">beskik oor taal</b> (wat nie beteken “Ons het taal” of “Ons besit taal”
nie). Dit sou eintlik meer korrek gewees het om te sê: Ons beskik oor die vermoë
om taal te gebruik en taal te verstaan, sy dit moedertaal of ander tale – en hierdie
taalvermoë is diep ingebed in ons kognitiewe, affektiewe en konatiewe
ervaringswêreld, selfs binne ons kognitiewe onbewuste.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Die personifiërende beskrywings <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lewende</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dooie</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">uitgestorwe</i> / <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">onderdrukkende</i> / ... ens. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">taal</i> dui eintlik op die <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">status</b> van ’n betrokke taal – en status
is nie ’n inherente eienskap van taal nie; dit is ’n mens-eienskap / menslike
eienskap / mensgemaakte eienskap. Die verpersoonliking van taal deur die
gebruik van allerlei adjektiewe om taal te beskryf, stel die gebruiker van sodanige
adjektiewe in staat om manipulerend bepaalde kulturele, godsdienstige,
politieke ... ensovoorts doelwitte na te jaag. Omdat (moeder)taal so heg
verweef is met die (moedertaal)spreker se psigiese, fisiese en ruimtelike wese,
kan die negatiewe of positiewe gebruik van sodanige adjektiewe vernietigend of
inspirerend op die gees van die (moedertaal)spreker inwerk – en baie
manipuleerders wéét dit!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Ek het iewers gelees dat iemand skryf
dat taal nie onskuldig is nie – andermaal ’n verpersoonliking van taal. Die skuld
of onskuld lê nie in die aard van taal nie. Die arsenaal wat taal bied ten
opsigte van sy klanke, woorde, woorddele, woordbetekenisse en sinne stel die
gebruiker van taal in staat om kwetsend, veroordelend, vleiend, vertroostend,
of wat ook al binne bepaalde kontekste te wees, waar die konteks ook grootliks
bydra tot die effek wat deur die betrokke taalgebruik tot stand gebring word.
Dit is dus nie taal wat skuldig of onskuldig is nie!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Binne verskillende gemeenskappe
bestaan daar verskillende variëteite van bepaalde tale op grond waarvan ons
praat van taalgemeenskappe. Omdat taal grootliks aangeleer word “na die
voorbeeld van” gebeur dit dat daar noodwendig ooreenstemmende taalgebruik binne
bepaalde geografiese, sosiale, kulturele en ander gemeenskappe sal voorkom. Wanneer
’n variëteit sodanig van die standaardtaal afwyk dat dit nie meer as ’n variëteit
daarvan beskou kan word nie, verkry dit die status van ’n dialek. Dialekstatus
word onder andere bepaal op grond van die gebruik daarvan naas die gebruik van
die betrokke standaardvorm binne die bepaalde gebied. Dialektologie is ’n interessante
maar ook komplekse studieterrein. Binne die twee klein landjies België en Nederland
saam word daar byvoorbeeld nie minder nie as vier-en-twintig dialekte naas
Standdaardnederlands onderskei. Wat belangrik is, is die feit dat dialekstatus hoofsaaklik
bepaal word op grond van die standaardvorm wat as norm dien. Voorheen het die
standdaardvorm van ’n betrokke taal ongelukkig ook as “algemeen-beskaaf”
bekendgestaan. Die gebruik van die adjektief <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">beskaaf</i> in die betrokke beskrywing, verwysend na die sprekers
daarvan en nie die taal as sodanig nie, is ongelukkig waarde-beoordelend en nie
neutraal nie. Daarom is binne die taalkunde van sodanige beskrywing afgesien. Die
gebruik van “algemeen-beskaaf” het bly vassteek by sommige gebruikers van
bepaalde tale (soos Afrikaans) en het daardeur tot gevolg gehad dat die
standaardvorm gestigmatiseer is. Gevolglik klink die wekroep tot
herstandaardisering op. Ironies is die feit dat pleitstukke in hierdie verband
in Standaarafrikaans geskied – en waarskynlik emosioneel-gedrewe en nie
taalkundig-gedrewe is nie. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">’n Volgende meningstuk sal onder die
titel “Hoekom taalkunde?” verskyn.<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br />Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-88575508152087701822018-05-19T05:40:00.000+02:002018-05-19T10:56:21.538+02:00Is dekolonialisasie/dekolonialisering 'n mite?<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b><br />
<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Is dekolonialisering/dekolonialisasie
’n mite<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_edn1" name="_ednref1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></b></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Willem J. Botha<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Emeritusprofessor: RAU/UJ<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vooraf</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Betogings, opstand
en (dikwels) voortspruitende geweld gaan gewoonlik gepaard met slagkrete en
slagspreuke. Slagkrete en slagspreuke is self ook dade (taaldade), alhoewel
daar waarskynlik ’n intensiteitsverskil tussen ’n slagkreet en ’n slagspreuk
bestaan. Na die postuum-verskyning van die Oxford-taalfilosoof se <i>How to do things with words</i> in 1962 het
daar talle navorsingsartikels verskyn wat die aard van die taaldaad ondersoek
het; ook het daar sedertdien navorsingsresultate oor die gespreksveranderlikes
wat bepaalde taaldade (taalhandelinge) instigeer en onderhou, verskyn. Hieruit
het geblyk dat die taaldaad nie net die fisiese (en psigiese) dade voorafgaan
nie, maar heg geïntegreer is met die gepaardgaande fisiese/psigiese dade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die woorde <i><span style="color: #c00000;">slagkreet<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_edn2" name="_ednref2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><b><span style="color: #c00000; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></b></span><!--[endif]--></span></a></span>
</i>en<i> <span style="color: #c00000;">slagspreuk</span></i>
het die fisiese daad “om (letterlik) te slaan” in hulle betekenisse ingebou, as
selfstandige naamwoorde van die werkwoord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">slaan</span></i>. In die <i>Afrikaanse woordeboek. Verklarend met woordafleidings </i>word <i><span style="color: #c00000;">slagkreet</span></i>
byvoorbeeld gedefinieer as “geroep nadat ’n slag gelewer is, oorlogskreet,
uitroep om aandag te trek”. In die geval van die woord <i>slagspreuk</i> word die betekenis verruim om weens “... frekwensie van
gebruik verbind (te) word aan ’n groep, party, vereniging”, aldus dieselfde
wooordeboek. Vergelyk ook woorde soos <b><i><span style="color: #c00000;">slag</span></i></b><i><span style="color: #c00000;">veld</span></i>,
<b><i><span style="color: #c00000;">slag</span></i></b><i><span style="color: #c00000;">offer</span></i> en ander.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die betekenisinhoud
van ’n besondere slagkreet instigeer meestal die rigting en/of aard van die
gepaardgaande fisiese handelinge, maar verbleek (semanties) dikwels later tot
slegs slagspreuk, die semantiese vangnet
vir die vergestalting van verskillende fisiese/psigiese opwellings as
gemene deler. In hierdie opsig kan verwys word na hoedat die <i><span style="color: #c00000;">#FeesMustFall</span></i>-slagkreet
(September/Oktober 2016) op grond van die geweld wat daarmee gepaard gegaan het,
gemene deler geword het van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">#ScienceMustFall</span></i>-, <i><span style="color: #c00000;">#WhitenessMustFall</span></i>- <i><span style="color: #c00000;">#AfrikaansMustFall</span></i>-
en ander tersaaklike slagkrete – en vir hierdie betoog relevant: Westerse universiteitsonderwys
moet gedekolonialiseer en geafrikaniseer<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_edn3" name="_ednref3" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> word. Daar sou ’n saak
daarvoor uitgemaak kon word dat binne die betrokke geweldskontekste die
rassistiese <i><span style="color: #c00000;">#WhitenessMustFall</span></i>-slagkreet
die onderbou van die <i><span style="color: #c00000;">#X-MustFall</span></i>-slagkrete konstitueer – én dat
dekolonialisasie ’n natuurlike uitvloeisel van sodanige eis is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vervolgens word die
semantiek van die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i> ondersoek teen die agtergrond
van resente beskouings en navorsing oor woordsemantiek.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Hoe
beteken woorde?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Woordbetekenis kan
veral vanuit drie gesigspunte benader word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die </span><u><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">eenvoudigste</span></u><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> benadering</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> sou wees om
die betekenis van ’n woord gelyk te stel aan ’n saak/sake (referent/e) wat
buite die wêreld van taal bestaan. In sodanige geval sou die woord in relasie
staan tot ’n saak wat ’n eksemplaar (of eksemplare) van ’n bepaalde kategorie verteenwoordig.
Op ’n universiteitskampus sou die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">student</span></i> byvoorbeeld na ’n bepaalde individu
binne ’n bepaalde kontekstuele kategorie verwys. Subkategorieë, soos
byvoorbeeld <i><span style="color: #c00000;">betogende
studente</span></i>, is maklik onderskeibaar op grond van optrede. Hierdie
benadering werk goed indien die moontlike referente konkreet is; vir abstrakte
en fiktiewe referente is hierdie benadering onhoudbaar, soos in die geval van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">’n <u>Abstrakter
benadering</u> hou in dat die betekenis van ’n woord beoordeel word op grond
van die bepaalde woord se betekenisrelasies met ander woorde in die betrokke
leksikon (teoretiese woordeboek van ’n taal) – ’n taalinterne benadering.
Sodanige relasies vind gestalte in eentalige woordeboeke en tesourusse van die
betrokke taal, maar ook in vertalings van die betrokke woorde in ander tale
omdat daar nie noodwendig ’n een-tot-een-betekenisverhouding tussen die woorde
van verskillende tale bestaan nie en betekenisverskille verhelderend kan wees. Die
abstrakte aard van hierdie benadering berus op die feit dat onder andere
rekening gehou moet word met betekenisimplikasies, die verskynsel dat een woord
meerdere betekenisonderskeidings mag hê (polisemie), betekenisoorvleueling
(sinonimie), betekenisteenoorgesteldheid (antonimie), betekenisinsluiting
(hiponimie) en woordafleidings en woordsamestellings (morfologiese
verskynsels).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vanuit die voorgenoemde
benadering sou die betekenis van die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i> beoordeel kon word op grond
van onder andere die woord se betekenisontwikkeling, wat uiteraard die
struktuurontwikkeling van die woord insluit: <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i> < <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisasie</span></i>
< <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer/kolonialiseer </span></i><<i><span style="color: #c00000;"> kolonie</span></i>.
Hierby word ook ingesluit die woord se afgeleide adjektiwiese vorme, soos <i><span style="color: #c00000;">gedekolonialiseerde</span></i>,
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">gedekoloniseerde</span></i>
en <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniale</span></i><span style="color: #c00000;"> </span>– en ook afgeleide substantiewe soos <i><span style="color: #c00000;">Kolonianer</span></i>,
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialis</span></i>,
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisme</span></i>,
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonie</span></i>,
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonis</span></i>,
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonisasie</span></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">As vertrekpunt vir ’n
ontleding van die betekenis van die onderhawige woord (<i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i>) word die
werkwoord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i>
as uitgangspunt geneem, met inagneming van die feit dat die
koloniseringshandeling spruit uit ’n kolonialisasie-ideologie. <i><span style="color: #c00000;">Koloniseer</span></i>
benoem die prosesse/handelinge (polities ook genoem <i><span style="color: #c00000;">imperialisme</span></i>) wat aan die begin
van die 15de eeu ’n aanvang geneem het met die ontdekkingsreise van die Portugese
en Spanjaarde, later gevolg deur die Engelse, Nederlanders, Franse en Duitsers.
Vir die </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">doel</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> van hierdie bespreking word
koloniseringshandelinge in antieke tye nie betrek nie. Sodanige handelinge is
so oud soos die mensdom self, onder andere baie duidelik waarneembaar indien
die historiese verbreiding en ontwikkeling van tale onder die loep geneem word.<span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">’n Paar leksikale
definisies van die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i> word eers te ontleed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i>
is afgelei van die Latynse woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">colere</span></i>,
wat “to inhabit” (“om te bewoon”) beteken – ’n neutrale term sonder enige
politieke of emosionele lading.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Binne meer resente tye
word die woord onder andere beskryf as “to send colonists to or establish a
colony in (an area); to settle in (an area) as colonists; (tr) to transform (a
community, etc.) into a colony” (<i>Collins
English Dictionary</i>); “<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">tot koloniën maken; </span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null"><span style="color: windowtext;">betekenisverwante
termen</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">: hyperoniem<i>: </i><i><span style="color: #c00000;">inlijv</span></i> en <i>synoniem(en): </i>kolonialiseren <i>(figuurlijk)</i> in beslag nemen, inpikken” (<i>Van Dale-aanlyn</i>); “’n volksplanting
vestig in; jou in ’n kolonie vestig; kolonialiseer” (<i>HAT</i>).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Ander </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">sinonieme
vir <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i>
(uit verskillende woordeboeke) dui op die wye spektrum betekenisonderskeidings
wat binne verskillende kontekste geaktiveer kan word, onder andere “people”, “populate”,
“pioneer”, “open up”, “found” “overrun”, “occupy”, “take over”, “seize”, “capture”,
“take possession of”, “annex”, “subjugate”, “hegemonize”.<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Van die voorgaande
leksikale definisies, wat baie algemeen geformuleer word om so omvattend as
moontlik die betrokke woord se betekenis te omskryf, hou ’n paar
betekenisimplikasies in. Die definisies dui eerstens op verskillende versweë
agente van die handeling: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">diegene wat
mense stuur, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">diegene wat
gestuur word, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">diegene wat uit
eie wil vestig. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">’n Tweede
betekenisimplikasie (vergestalt in die komplementwerkwoordkonstruksie-betekenisbeskrywings<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_edn4" name="_ednref4" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> “to transform” en “<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #111113;">tot koloniën
maken”) </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">dui op ’n sekere politieke of
ideologiese opset met betrekking tot ’n te stigte kolonie, dus as resultaat van
die ideologie van kolonialisme.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">’n
Derde betekenisimplikasie het te make met die wye spektrum
betekenisonderskeidings wat die betrokke woord kan hê. In hierdie opsig tree </span><i><span lang="NL" style="color: #c00000; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">koloniseer</span></i><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> op as ’n semanties leë woord: hoe meer ’n woord kan beteken, hoe minder
beteken dit eintlik. Sodanige woorde se betekenismoontlikhede lei tot ’n magdom
uiteenlopende betekenisbeskouings ten opsigte van dit waarna die woord
potensieel verwys. Dit hou verband met die konseptuele betekenisbenadering, ’n
aspek van betekenis wat verder aan bespreek word.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die meeste
van die betrokke definisies is egter moreel neutraal geformuleer ten opsigte
van die aard van die koloniseringsdaad. <i>Van
Dale</i> en <i>HAT</i> beskou <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialiseren</span>/<span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialiseer</span></i> as sinonieme van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i>
sonder dat daar ’n noemenswaardige aanduiding van betekenisverskil is, alhoewel
<i>Van Dale</i> tog <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialiseren</span></i> as figuurlike
gebruik aandui. Daarteenoor word die betekenis van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialiseer</span></i> (<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisieren</span></i>)
in Duits beskryf as ’n handeling uitgevoer om ’n bepaalde objek se politieke of
sosiale status te verander: “</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><a href="http://dict.tu-chemnitz.de/deutsch-englisch/ein.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">ein</span></a> <a href="http://dict.tu-chemnitz.de/deutsch-englisch/Volk.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Volk</span></a> <a href="http://dict.tu-chemnitz.de/deutsch-englisch/kolonialisieren.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">kolonialisieren</span></a>”. Op grond van die feit dat die
fokus van die handeling van subjek (agent) na ’n objek (diegene wat die
handeling ondergaan) verskuif, suggereer iets van ’n moraliteit wat die
handeling betref. Daarom behoort <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #c00000;">kolonialiseer</span></i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"> eerder saamgelees te word met die afgeleide naamwoord
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisme</span></i>,
wat <i>HAT</i> soos volg omskryf: “1.
Ekonomiese, politieke en maatskaplike beleid waardeur ’n groot moondheid sy
kontrole oor landstreke en volke handhaaf of uitbrei; beleid waardeur kolonies
verkry en behou word. 2. Minagtende benaming deur jong state gebruik om die
optrede van Westerse moondhede teenoor hulle vroeëre kolonies aan te dui.” <i>Van Dale</i> beskryf <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisme</span></i> as ’n “systeem<span style="color: #111113;"> waarbij
de rijkdommen en de arbeidskracht van een wingebied worden geëxploiteerd ten
voordele van de vreemde overheerser”.</span></span><span style="color: red;"> </span>In teenstelling met <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i> impliseer <i>kolonialiseer</i> dus ook ’n moraliteitsdimensie
– én ’n moontlike negatiewe ervaring deur die geaffekteerdes van die handeling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">’n Gevolgtrekking wat
hieruit gemaak kan word, is dat daar ’n hegter semantiese betrekking tussen <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisme</span></i>
en <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialiseer</span></i>
bestaan as wat daar tussen <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialiseer</span></i> en <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i> bestaan. Die kolonialiseringshandeling
spruit uit ’n filosofie (politieke denkrigting) van kolonialisme. Alhoewel daar
in Engels afgeleide vorme van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">colonialism</span></i> bestaan (<i><span style="color: #c00000;">colonialist</span></i>, <i><span style="color: #c00000;">colonial</span></i>,
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">colonialistic</span></i>),
word die ooreenstemmende werkwoordvorm (<i><span style="color: #c00000;">colonialize</span></i>: vaag gedefinieer as “to make
colonial” [<i>Dictionary.com</i>] – eerste
optekening tussen 1860-1865) nie in die meeste standaard-Engelswoordeboeke
aangetref nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Opsommend kan gesê word
dat waar daar sprake van ’n magshebber is, die handeling van kolonisering nie
net gepaard gaan met eksterne handelinge nie, maar dat dit ook geïntegreer is
met (dikwels verskuilde) kolonialiseringshandelinge. Die koloniseringshandeling
geskied dus vanuit die motief van die kolonialiseerder om voordeel daaruit te
put. In gevalle waar koloniste uit eie vrye wil ’n bepaalde gebied koloniseer
om bepaalde persoonlike redes, sou die handeling meestal nie óók ’n
kolonialiseringshandeling wees nie. Daar kan geredeneer word dat die Afrikanerdiaspora
’n ooreenstemmende handeling kan wees en akkulturasie binne nuwe
lewensomstandighede ’n soortgelyke resultaat tot gevolg het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die betekenisverskil
tussen <i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i><span style="color: #c00000;"> </span>en<span style="color: #c00000;"> <i>kolonialiseer</i> </span>word duideliker
wanneer die omgekeerde handelinge, vergestalt in die werkwoorde<span style="color: #c00000;"> <i>dekoloniseer</i> </span>en<span style="color: #c00000;"> <i>dekolonialiseer</i></span>,
onder oë geneem word. Dekolonisering vind meestal plaas op grond van toegewing
deur die koloniseerder en sy gevolglike bestuur van die proses.<span style="color: #c00000;"> </span>In die geval van dekolonialisering vind die
inisiatief daarvoor – en die gepaardgaande handelinge – veral plaas vanuit die
beheersende punt van die gekolonialiseerdes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vervolgens word, teen
die voorgaande agtergrond, die semantiek van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span> </i>(<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal;">dekolonialisasie)</span> in meer besonderhede onder
die loep geneem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Allereers is dit nodig
om daarop te let dat die voorvoegsel (prefiks) <i><span style="color: #c00000;">de</span></i>- gewoonlik die volgende
betekeniswaarde kan hê in ooreenstemming met die betekenis van die
daaropvolgende selfstandige naamwoord: “omkeer”; dus die proses van
kolonialisering omkeer, óf die proses van kolonisering omkeer. Die etimologie
van die prefiks <i>de</i>- dui ook op ’n
sekere negatiewe betekeniswaarde, deur die <i>Online
Etymology Dictionary</i> beskryf as “<span style="background: #FFFCF2;">a prefix
in Latin usually meaning “down, off, … , down from,” but also “down to the
bottom, totally” hence “completely” (intensive or completive)”. Dit stem ooreen
met die oriëntasiemetafore wat Lakoff & Johnson (1980) onderskei,
waarvolgens, op grond van die menslike liggaamlike ruimtelike oriëntasie, bo
dikwels as positief ervaar word en onder as negatief. Hulle gee toe dat dit
natuurlik van kultuur tot kultuur kan verskil. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Daar is reeds
gepostuleer dat <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisering</span></i>
en <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonisering</span></i>,
en hulle omgekeerdes, nie na dieselfde prosesse verwys nie. Die betekenis van
die een (<i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialisering</span></i>)
is meestal ingesluit by die betekenis van die ander (<i><span style="color: #c00000;">koloniseer</span></i>). Gebruiksvoorbeelde
toon dat daar by bepaalde (Afrikaanse) taalgebruikers weinig onderskeid getref
word en dat die twee woorde afwisselend sinonimies gebruik word. Dit kan
moontlik toegeskryf word aan Engelse invloed waar <i><span style="color: #c00000;">colonize</span></i> en <i><span style="color: #c00000;">decolonize</span></i> albei betekenisse
(“colonialize” en “decolonialize” respektiewelik) by hulle betekenisse ingesluit
het. Vergelyk byvoorbeeld hoedat <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonisering</span></i> en <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialiseer</span></i> (werkwoordvorm
van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i>)
in die volgende voorbeelde sinonimies gebruik word ten opsigte van dieselfde
konteks sonder aanduiding van noemenswaardige betekenisverskil:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 17.85pt; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">(1)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“Maar dit is presies ook die rede waarom ons
moet omgee oor <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonisering</span></i>
van die wetenskap.” (<i>Rapport Weekliks</i>,
23 Oktober 2016, p. 4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm 6pt 17.85pt; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">(2)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“Dit
is die rede waarom ’n doelbewuste poging om wetenskap te <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialiseer</span></i> waardevol is en
Suid-Afrikaanse universiteite het die geleentheid om die proses te lei.” </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">(<i>Rapport Weekliks</i>, 23 Oktober 2016, p. 4)</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die behoefte aan die
benoeming van dekolonisering/dekolonialisasie sou eers ontstaan toe die bewussyn
van die proses die eerste keer sy verskyning gemaak het. Op grond daarvan
postuleer die <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Online Etymology Dictionary</span></i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"> dat
die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">decolonization</span></i>
die eerste keer in 1853 vanuit ’n politieke konteks in Amerikaanse Engels
gebruik is alhoewel die VSA sy onafhanklikheid van Brittanje reeds in 1776
verklaar het. Vroeër was die woord slegs ’n mediese term.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Verwysing na die
historiese konteks waarbinne die woord sy ontstaan te danke het – en ter
ondersteuning van die betekenisbeskrywing van die woord </span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #c00000; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">dekolonialisasie</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> –
bring ons by ’n <u>volgende benadering</u> op grond waarvan die betekenis van
woorde ondersoek kan word, naamlik die begripsbenadering (ook genoem <u>konseptuele
benadering</u>). </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">In kort beteken hierdie benadering dat die betekenis van ’n
woord gelykgestel word aan die begrip of begrippe wat dit by die taalgebruiker
oproep deur die gebruik van ’n bepaalde woord. Die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i> se betekenis
staan dus in noue veband met die begrip <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal;">dekolonialisasie</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Verknoop aan die begrip
<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal;">dekolonialisasie – </span>en vir die
verstaan daarvan –<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal;"> </span>is dit nodig om
verskeie veranderlikes ter oorweging te neem. Dit sluit onder andere die
volgende in: historiese, kulturele, politieke, sosiale, kontekstuele, talige
(alhoewel talige by implikasie die meeste hiervan ondervang omdat taal denke
struktureer) en ander faktore. </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vervolgens word
daar aandag geskenk aan die woord se begripstatus teen die agtergrond van die
feit dat die Engelse woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">decolonization</span></i>, alhoewel dit dubbelsinnig
verstaan kan word, binne die huidige tydsgewrig as dekolonialisasie bedoel word
op grond van die feit dat Afrikastate sedert die sestigerjare van die vorige
eeu hulle onafhanklikheid verkry het as gevolg van ’n proses van dekolonisering
en dus nie meer behoefte aan dekolonisering het nie. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Wat beteken dit dus
om polities/staatkundig gedekoloniseer te wees maar nie gedekolonialiseer nie?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Wat beteken dit as
die eis opklink dat die huidige Westerse universiteitsonderwys gedekolonialiseer
en geafrikaniseer moet word?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die laasgenoemde eis
word meestal vanuit ’n swartbewussynsperspektief gestel. In ’n artikel getitel
“</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Decolonising
the mind and restoring the dignity of black people</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">” skryf ene <em><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0cm;">Boy Menzi Shongwe (2016) onder
andere die volgende met betrekking tot (gekolonialiseerde) onderwys:<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="A1"></a>
</span></em><em><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-style: normal; padding: 0cm;"><o:p></o:p></span></em></span></div>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin: 0cm 0cm 7.5pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<em><span lang="EN-GB" style="border: 1pt none; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; padding: 0cm;">“</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The anguish
of seeing black people relinquishing their mother tongue in the former model c
schools just to have a better education as most believe so, blacks in such
schools do English as a ‘home language’ and do their real home language as a
first additional language if they are lucky enough, not to do Afrikaans as a
first additional language. When such thing is done one must know that the
identity of the black person has been taken away or has been altered, because
one’s home language is his/her identity … if at school they say to a black
child do English as home language then … the identity of that child has been
altered.”</span><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Dit herinner aan die
woorde van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Charlemagne
(Karel die Grote): “To have another language is to possess a second soul.”
Beteken dit dan dat hierdie kinders hulle lewens hoofsaaklik moet inrig
ooreenkomstig die “second soul”?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">In sy betoog gaan hy verder deur
te sê: “</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Black people had become foreigners and employees
in their own land which is basically their home. The African land that was
supposed to be owned and controlled by Africans was taken away from them
through colonisation, apartheid, black genocide and etc” (sic).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die laasgenoemde uitspraak getuig daarvan dat die konseptuele betekenis
van woorde ook ’n beheersendepuntverskynsel is (“vantage point phenomenon”). Hy
impliseer vanuit sy beheersende punt onder andere dat wit inwoners van
Suid-Afrika steeds koloniste is wat op hulle beurt kolonialisme voortsit, dat
hulle nie die reg het om as inheems beskou te word nie, dat hulle lot gesien
moet word as deel van die proses van dekolonialisering. Hierdie beskouing sluit
direk aan by een van die </span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #c00000; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">#XmustFall</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">-slagkrete,
naamlik </span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #c00000; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">#WhitenessMustFall</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Talle reste van kolonialisme is steeds in Suid-Afrika aanwesig, en sal
waarskynlik steeds bly voortbestaan. Die rede daarvoor is te vind in die feit
dat dekolonisering ’n proses is wat op ’n bepaalde stadium voltrek behoort te
wees, terwyl dekolonialisering op verskeie vlakke werksaam is. Op die eerste
vlak gaan dit gepaard met dekolonialisering op grond van die feit dat van sigbare
koloniale simbole afstand gedoen word. Op die meer subtiele (en meestal
onsigbare) vlak is die proses nie so eenvoudig nie. In hierdie opsig kan na
verskillende koloniale kultuurreste verwys word, onder andere regeringsvorme,
regstelsels, ekonomiese stelsels, onderwysstelsels, fisiese infrastruktuur en
nog baie meer – meestal so verknoop in/aan ’n globale wêreld dat ’n samelewing
daarsonder ondenkbaar is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Ter illustrasie van die kompleksiteit van die
dekolonialiseringsproblematiek op die interne/intrinsieke vlak word die posisie
van die Afrikaner/Afrikaans kortliks in die soeklig geplaas. Die Afrikaner/Afrikaans
is gekolonialiseer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die Afrikaner/Afrikaans
en dekolonialisasie<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Ten opsigte van die Afrikaner/Afrikaans
kan twee vlakke van kolonialisering onderskei word: ekstern en intern.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die eksterne </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">kolonialisering</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> van die Afrikaner/Afrikaans het eintlik na die
Anglo-Boereoorlog sy beslag gekry in ’n brief wat die destydse </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">superintendent van onderwys in Transvaal en die
Oranjerivierkolonie, E.B. Sargant, aan lord Alfred Milner, Britse hoë
kommissaris vir Suid-Afrika, geskryf het: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">“We must appeal to England, and ask the sisters and daughters of those
who have been fighting for the Empire to come out and complete that part of the
work which their male relatives are unable to accomplish. Our military police
had gathered the greater part of the child population into these camps and ...
I feel that the opportunity during the next year of getting them all to speak
English is golden”. (Vergelyk J.C. Steyn [litnet-artikel] in hierdie verband.) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Hierdie oproep is ’n duidelike illustrasie van die leksikale definisie
wat die <i>Advanced English Dictionary</i>
onder andere vir die betekenis van </span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #c00000; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">colonialism</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"> gee:
“exploitation by a stronger country of weaker one”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die ontwikkeling van Afrikaans se posisie tot amptelike status en daarna
val nie binne die bestek van hierdie artikel nie. Wat wel ter sake is, is die
feit dat Afrikaans na 1994 sy 50%-aandeel as amptelike taal kwyt was, met die onpraktiese
veronderstelling dat hy gelyke amptelike status met tien ander tale sou hê. Die
gevolge was nie moeilik voorspelbaar nie: Afrikaans se verlies aan hoë
funksies, ook die ander amptelike Afrikatale se verswakkende posisie ten
opsigte van die <i>de facto</i>- amptelike
taal, Engels. Baie redes kan hiervoor aangevoer word, maar dit is nie nou ter sake
nie. [</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">’n Terloopse vraag. Hoe
“amptelik” kan ’n taal wees as sy amptelike gebruike doelbewus vernietig word –
en ander nog nie die vermoë tot amptelikheid bereik het nie</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">?]</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Kolonialisasie van Afrikaans – nou nie meer deur bewindhebbers nie, maar
as gevolg van die intrinsieke krag van Engels as wêreldtaal – was egter ook
ingrypend ten opsigte van Afrikaans se interne grammatikale en leksikale
strukture. Voorbeelde daarvan is talryk en kan nageslaan word in <i>The influence of English on Afrikaans</i>
deur B.C. Donaldson. Dat Afrikaans wel ook ’n invloed op Suid-Afrikaanse Engels
gehad het, is waar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Dekolonialisasie van Afrikaans se interne grammatikale en leksikale
strukture is dus nie moontlik nie en ook nie wenslik nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Teen hierdie agtergrond het die eis tot gedekolonialiseerde onderwys
waarskynlik ook nie te doen met die indringing van Engels in Afrikatale nie,
óók nie ten opsigte van die feit dat daar weggedoen moet word met Engels (as
koloniale taal!) nie, want eintlik is Engels tans die draer van die eis tot
dekolonialisasie in onderwys.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die eis om dekolonialisering van die onderwys het te doen met die
dekolonialisering van denke. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Is dit egter moontlik om taal en denke te skei? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Taal en denke<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die kognitiewe (taal)wetenskap het die afgelope dertig tot veertig jaar
talle nuwe en insiggewende bevindinge oor die verhouding tussen taal en denke
die lig laat sien. Enkele van hierdie insigte word kortliks aangestip ter
ondersteuning van die inhoud van hierdie betoog.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Daar word beraam dat daar tussen drieduisend en tienduisend tale op
aarde bestaan. ’n Presiese syfer is nie moontlik nie omdat daar tale is wat
uitsterf en dan is daar ook nie altyd konsensus oor die dialektiese status van
bepaalde taalvariëteite nie, synde selfstandige taal of dialek. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Normale
taalgebruikers het die kognitiewe (en ander) vermoë(ns) om taal aan te leer en
te gebruik. Die makro- en mikro-omgewings (ruimtelik, kultureel, sosiaal en
andersins) waarbinne die taalontwikkeling en taalgebruik geskied, verskil egter
van taal tot taal. Dit impliseer dat onderliggende denkstrukture soortgelyk,
maar óók gevarieerd, ontwikkel, sommiges meer ooreenstemmend terwyl ander
geheel van mekaar sal verskil op grond van hulle taalfamiliale verbintenisse. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Op grond van die feit dat ’n pasgeborene in enige taalomgewing die
betrokke taal as moedertaal kan aanleer, laat vermoed dat daar sekere
universalia moet bestaan wat die aanleer moontlik maak. Sodanige universalia
bestaan wel, maar nie noodwendig as taaluniversalia nie – wel as
ervaringsuniversalia. Die begrips- en taalaanlerende individu berg vanuit die
staanspoor ervarings (bekend as beeldskemas) in die kognitiewe onbewuste, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“the vast
system of concepts and cognitive mechanisms that operates beneath the level of
consciousness, structuring both our experience and our mode of conceptualizing
the world”, volgens Lakoff & Johnson (1997). Die kognitiewe onbewuste bevat
onder andere <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">prekonseptuele ervarings
van ruimte, ruimtelike oriëntasie, deel-geheel-relasies, proksimitieit
(nabyheid/verwydering) en nog ’n aantal ander. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #f79646;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die
begrips-/taalaanlerende individu se liggaamlike (ruimtelike) ervaring van die
werklikheid kry in hierdie proses kognitief beslag. Die werklikheid waarin
hy/sy geplaas is, kom aanvanklik as ’n diffuse (vespreide/onsamehangende)
kontinuum voor. Deur taal kry hy/sy ’n kognitiewe greep op die werklikheid,
want deur taal word die “elemente van die werklikheid” benoem. Die werklikheid
word dus gekategoriseer. Daar vind dus ’n bewuswording van sy/haar onmiddellike
werklikheid plaas, die eie indentiteit en diegene wat na aan die eie identiteit
funksioneer, die onmiddellike ruimtelike omgewing – en later die tydsdimensie.
Later word hierdie bestaanskoördinate (identiteit, ruimtelike plasing en
tydsplasing) na abstrakter dimensies getransponeer, juis ook omdat hierdie
koördinate as sodanig baie abstrakte elemente bevat. Op grond van verskillende
kulture waarin tale bestaan – en as sodanig die draers van die onderskeie
kulture is – spreek dit vanself dat die taalneerslag van taal tot taal sal
verskil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die
proses van konseptualisering (en dus ook benoeming deur taal) vind dus divers
plaas in ooreenstemming met die <span style="color: #76923c; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 191;">besondere taalgebruiker se unieke en gemeenskaplike
lewenswerklikheid.</span> Op grond van die wisselwerking tussen lewenswerklikheid
en taalomgewing word die besondere taal se begripstrukture eintlik inherent
deel van die taalaanlerende individu se kognitiewe apparatuur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Vervolgens
word slegs enkele voorbeelde oorsigtelik genoem om aan te dui hoedat deur taal verskillende
tale se taalgebruikers se ervaring van die werklikheid verskil. ’n Volledige bespreking
van die voorbeelde val nie binne die bestek van hierdie betoog nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Ruimtelike ervaring<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Op
grond van kulturele en ander faktore bestaan daar tale wat nie die behoefte aan
ruimtelike verwysing in die onmiddellike omgewing van die spreker het nie. Windrigtingaanduidings
is vir hulle voldoende.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Dan is
daar ook tale (soos Hausa en Djerma wat in Nigerië gepraat word) wat ’n
teenoorgestelde verwysingsisteem het – in vergelyking met Westerse tale – wanneer daar na die lokaliteit van ’n objek in
verhouding tot ’n ander objek verwys word. Die uitdrukking “voor die boom” sal
byvoorbeeld na ’n teenoorgestelde lokaliteit verwys as wat dit die geval in
Afrikaans of Engels sou wees.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Tydervaring <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Op
grond van liggaamlike oriëntasie word in sommige tale na die verlede verwys as
“agter” en na die toekoms as “voor”. In ander tale is die proses omgekeerd. In
sommige tale word die beweging van tyd begripsmatig van links na regs ervaar,
terwyl ander dit weer andersom (regs na links ervaar) in ooreenstemming met die
rigting waarin geskryf word. Verskillende tale het ook verskillende tydmodelle
op grond waarvan die beweging van tyd in verhouding tot die ego ervaar word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Kleurwaarneming<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Daar
kom baie voorbeelde in die literatuur voor van tale wat verskil ten opsigte van
die aantal kleure wat hulle benoem. Hierdie verskynsel illustreer baie duidelik
dat die kategorieë wat ons waarneem, nie as sodanig in die objektiewe
werklikheid bestaan nie. Die onderskeiding van die betrokke kategorieë is ’n
kultuurverskynsel wat deur die aanleer van die betrokke moedertaal verwerf word.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Ons
sou kon voortgaan om verskille te lys wat deur die ontleding van taal aandui
dat sprekers van verskillende moedertale verskillende begripservarings van die
werklikheid het. Wat egter vir hierdie betoog van belang is, is die feit dat
wanneer kolonialisering van ’n bepaalde grondgebied en hulle inwoners
plaasvind, die kolonialiseerder se moedertaal een van die eerste elemente is wat
op die gekolonialiseerdes afgedwing word. Dit beteken dat die kolonialiseerder
se kognitiewe taalapparatuur deel word van die gekolonialiseerder se
begripsweefsel, dikwels radikaal teenstrydig met byvoorbeeld die
begripsmetafore (en natuurlik grammatikale strukture) wat binne die onderskeie
tale bestaan. Wanneer dit eers deel geword het van die gekolonialiseerde se
denkwêreld (gewoonlik omdat hy/sy onder dwang is om die hoër funksies van die
kolonialiseerder se moedertaal te bemeester om binne die nuwe sosiale,
maatskaplike, regs- en ander terreine te funksioneer), word die bewindhebber se
moedertaal geredelik aanvaar en van geslag tot geslag oorgedra, selfs lank na
dekolonisering. Vergelyk byvoorbeeld die amptelike tale van verskeie
Afrikastate wat lank reeds gedekoloniseer is (in bepaalde gevalle naas die
inheemse taal van die streek), onder andere Burkina Faso (Frans), Burundi
(Frans), Kameroen (Engels en Frans), Republiek van die Kongo (Frans), Gaboen
(Frans), Gambië (Engels), Ghana (Engels), Kenia (Engels), Mosambiek
(Portugees), Namibië (Engels), Suid-Afrika (Engels) – en nog andere ook.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Bogenoemde
indringing van koloniale tale binne die Afrikakonteks is in ’n sekere sin
verklaarbaar as in ag geneem word dat die onderskeie koloniale tale onder meer
onderlinge kommunikasie moes moontlik maak in ’n vasteland waarin daar ongeveer
2 000 tale gepraat word (vergelyk </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Africa#cite_note-0"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Africa#cite_note-0</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">). Dieselfde bron skryf ook die ontwikkeling van
kreooltale aan onder andere koloniale invloed toe: “Due partly to its
multilingualism and its colonial past, a substantial proportion of the
world’s </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">creole languages</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"> are to be found in Africa.” Daar bestaan by
bepaalde taalkundiges die opvatting dat Afrikaans ook ’n kreooltaal is. Tasch
(1995:28) beweer byvoorbeeld: “Afrikaans ist gemäss neueren Untersuchenen eine
‘kreolisierte’ germanische Sprache, die hauptsächlich in der Republik
Südafrika, Namibia, Zimbabwe und vereinzelt auch in Botswana und Swaziland
gesprochen wird.”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">In die
geval van tale wat uit kreolisering ontstaan het, is daar waarskynlik geen
sprake van dekolonialisering van die betrokke tale nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Ten slotte<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die
voorgaande oorsig word saamgevat:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Woorde
verwys na konkrete, fiktiewe of abstrakte sake (referente) binne ’n buitetalige
werklikheid. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Die
aanleer van ’n moedertaal (hier ter sake woorde uit die betrokke taal se
woordeskat) word betrek by ’n komplekse en geïntegreerde aaneenskakeling van
prekonseptuele ervarings (dus prelinguistiese ervarings) met konseptuele
ervarings in ooreenstemming met die benoeming deur talige simbole (byvoorbeeld
die voorsetsel <i><span style="color: #c00000;">in</span></i>
vir ruimte/houer-ervarings). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">In die
geval van abstrakte sake (referente) dien die woord se betekenisrelasies met
ander woorde binne dieselfde betekenisdomein as betekenisverklaring.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Elke
spreker van ’n (moeder)taal het egter ook ’n konteks waaruit hy/sy kom, wat
onder andere historiese en kulturele determinante insluit vir die konstituering
van ’n begripsbetekenis (konseptuele betekenis) van ’n betrokke woord.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Tale
verskil van mekaar ten opsigte van die wyse waarop hulle kognitief (konseptueel
wat woorde betref) universele ervarings talig benoem, wat bevestiging is van
diverse lewensruimtes waarin hulle hulle bevind. In hierdie opsig speel die
konseptuele metafoor (begripsmetafoor) – wat binne die bestek van hierdie
betoog nie bespreek kon word nie – ’n belangrike rol in die verstaan van
abstrakte begrippe. Die volgende uitspraak van Lakoff en Johnson (1997)
suggereer dat baie konseptuele metafore in ’n groot mate taalspesifiek en
kultuurspesifiek is, dus ook die kognitiewe weefsel van die betrokke
moedertaalspreker: <span style="color: #c00000;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“What metaphor does is
to allow us to reason about abstract domains using inferences from concrete
domains that are highly structured in our experience. It allows us to map
inference patterns from concrete to abstract domains. All metaphorical
inference, it appears, is a projection of sensorimotor inference patterns onto
abstract domains. Neural projections from sensorimotor areas of the brain to
areas responsible for abstract reason appear to be responsible for metaphorical
thought: they permit us to take nonmetaphorical inference mechanisms from the
sensorimotor areas and put them to use in carrying out abstract inferences. …
The linguistic function of metaphor is secondary.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Opmerking</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">. In hierdie bespreking is die kompleksiteit van die (soms radikale)
grammatikale verskille tussen tale – ook deel van elke taalgebruiker se kognitiewe
apparatuur – nie betrek nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Gevolgtrekking</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Teen
die voorgaande uiteensetting kan tereg gevra word: Wat beteken “</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Westerse
universiteitsonderwys moet gedekolonialiseer en geafrikaniseer word ...”?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die feit dat
Westerse universiteitsonderwys teenoor afrikanisering gestel word, bevestig die
argument wat in hierdie betoog gestel is: twee denkstrukture (kognitiewe
sisteme wat in taal en deur taal tot stand kom), kom teenoor mekaar te staan.
Die Westerse sisteem verteenwoordig denkstrukture wat vreemd aandoen in
vergelyking met wat as Afrika-denkstrukture beskou word. Die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">afrikaniseer</span></i>
impliseer die aanpassing en transformasie van die koloniale denkpatrone, wat
positief bejeën sou kon word – in teenstelling met <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialiseer</span></i> wat “afbreek” as
betekeniswaarde in sy betekenis dra. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Een van die
treffendste voorbeelde van die begrip AFRIKANISEER is te vind in die Afrikaanse taal: Afrikaans is
geafrikaniseerde Nederlands, wel onder invloed van ander tale, maar tale wat
hulle invloed op die Afrikaanse bodem laat geld het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Dit is ironies dat
die instrument wat veronderstel is om die proses van dekolonialisasie moet dra,
die koloniale taal Engels is, wat impliseer dat kolonialisme eintlik uitgebou en
in stand gehou word deur die aandrang van onderrig in Engels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Werklike intrinsieke
dekolonialisasie (verandering van inherente denkstrukture) bly dus ’n onbereikbare
ideaal vir diegene wat dit begeer, onmoontlik omdat kolonialisme in taal
gedrenk is – ’n mite, omdat in die
strewe daarna die wese van kolonialisme eintlik bevorder word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die slagkreet
“dekolonialisasie van universiteitsonderwys” se eintlike betekenis lê net in
die taalhandelingskrag van die eis, omdat die uitdrukking as sodanig in ’n
sekere sin as </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">’n</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> semanties leë sambreelterm gebruik word (vergelyk Botha,
1975, oor die semantiek van semanties leë woorde) wat van konteks tot konteks een
of meer van die teendele moet aktiveer van wat as betekenisonderskeidings van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kolonialiseer</span></i>
geld, soos vroeër onderskei.</span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">V</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">erwysings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Advanced
English Dictionary</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> – elektroniese kopie<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Beolingus</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">
(Aanlynwoordeboek) </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://dict.tu-chemnitz.de/dings.cgi?service=deen&opterrors=0&optpro=0&query=kolonialisieren&iservice"><span lang="AF">http://dict.tu-chemnitz.de/dings.cgi?service=deen&opterrors=0&optpro=0&query=kolonialisieren&iservice</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Botha, W.J. 1975. <i>Die leë werkwoord in Afrikaans</i>. Unisa: Ongepubliseerde
Magisterverhandeling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Dictionay.com</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/colonialize"><span lang="AF">http://www.dictionary.com/browse/colonialize</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Donaldson, Bruce C. 1988. <i>The Influence of English on Afrikaans: A
Case Study of Linguistic Change in a Language Contact Situation</i>. Pretoria:
Serva Publishers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Hanks, Patrick (ed.). 1979. <i>Collins Dictionary of the English Language</i>.
Londen & Glasgow: Collins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Lakoff, </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">George</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> & Mark
Johnson. 1980. <i>Metaphors we live by</i>.
Chicago & Londen: University of Chicago Press.</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Lakoff, </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">George</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> & Mark
Johnson. 1997. <i>Philosophy in the flesh</i>.
Ongepubliseerde elektroniese kopie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Online Etymology Dictionary. 1 Mei 2018. <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/de-?ref=etymonline_crossreference">https://www.etymonline.com/word/de-?ref=etymonline_crossreference</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div style="margin: 0cm 0cm 7.5pt; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="border: 1pt none; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; line-height: 115%; padding: 0cm;">Shongwe, Boy Menzi. 16 May 2016. </span></em><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="border: 1pt none; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; line-height: 115%; padding: 0cm;">Decolonising the mind and restoring the dignity of black people. </span></em><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="border: 1pt none; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; line-height: 115%; padding: 0cm;">Article no: 5, News24.</span></em></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Steyn, J.C. Oktober 2016 geraadpleeg. </span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Die
taalstryd na die Anglo-Boereoorlog</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.oulitnet.co.za/taaldebat/steynjc2.asp">http://www.oulitnet.co.za/taaldebat/steynjc2.asp</a></span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Tasch,
Meike. 1995. <i>Empirische Untersuchung zu Sprechereinstellungen
in Südafrika</i>. Duisburg: Gerhard-Mercator – Gesamthochschule – Duisburg.</span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Taylor, John R. 1995. <i>Linguistic categorization. Prototypes in
linguistic theory</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Van Dale Online </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.vandale.nl/online"><span lang="AF">http://www.vandale.nl/online</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Wikipedia. Oktober 2016. <i>Languages of Africa</i>. (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Africa#cite_note-0">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Africa#cite_note-0</a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">).<span style="color: #4f81bd; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div>
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<br />
<div id="edn1">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin-left: 2.85pt; text-indent: -2.85pt;">
<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-ansi-language: AF;">Daar bestaan
’n subtiele betekenisverskil tussen die woorde <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisering</span></i> en <i><span style="color: #c00000;">dekolonialisasie</span></i>.
Eersgenoemde benoem die proses terwyl laasgenoemde die verskynsel benoem. In
die onderhawige betoog word die twee woorde afwisselend gebruik sonder
onderskeid in betekenis omdat die betekenisverskil nie vir die onderhawige
argument ter sake is nie.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">Woordstatus word met <i><span style="color: #c00000;">kursivering</span></i> aangedui. Begripstatus word met <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal;">klein-hoofletters</span> aangedui.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin-left: 2.85pt; text-indent: -2.85pt;">
<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Die
semantiek van die woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">Afrikaniseer</span></i> val nie binne die bestek van
hierdie bespreking nie. Dit is egter nodig om daarop te wys dat die die
onderhawige woord semanties as leeg beskou kan word (vergelyk Botha, 1975). ’n
Semanties-leë woord se betekenisbestek is so omvattend dat dit eintlik niks
spesifiek beteken nie: hoe meer dit kán beteken, hoe minder betéken dit. </span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin-left: 2.85pt; text-indent: -2.85pt;">
<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20Data%202018/C%20Persoonlik/D%20Navorsing/Dekolonialisasie%202018%2005%2015.docx#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">’n Komplementwerkwoordkonstruksie</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> bestaan uit
’n oorganklike werkwoord (waarvan die betekenis verandering impliseer, ’n voorwerpnaamwoordstuk
en ’n (eksplisiete of implisiete) komplement. Die komplement dui die aard van
die verandering aan wat die voorwerpnaamwoordstuk as gevolg van die
veranderingswerkwoord ondergaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]-->
<!--[endif]-->
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"></span></b></div>
Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-91610588037521642422017-03-11T09:38:00.001+02:002018-04-14T13:43:08.437+02:00Die liefdesgebod en die metafoor "God is liefde"<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-54828221221899877802016-12-24T15:34:00.001+02:002016-12-29T18:03:12.646+02:00Metaforiese versmelting van intieme digterlike ruimte en wêreld in die poësie van Rika Cilliers<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<b style="color: blue;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR. KLIK OP DIE PYLTJIE BY DIE BETROKKE MAAND VIR TOEGANG.</b></div>
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<br />Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-13367565618293877612016-12-17T14:55:00.001+02:002016-12-17T14:58:56.212+02:00Naamgewing en naamsverandering<div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="text-transform: uppercase;"><b style="color: blue; text-transform: none;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR. KLIK OP DIE PYLTJIE BY NOVEMBER VIR TOEGANG.</b></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="text-transform: uppercase;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Naamgewing en naamsverandering</span></b><span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: large; text-align: right;">W.J.
Botha</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">1. Naamgewing<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Naamgewing (of benoeming) is ’n natuurlike
menslike (taal)verskynsel. Die taalgebruiker doen dit om betekenis te gee aan
die “dinge” (of sake) in sy leefwêreld – hetsy aan konkrete, abstrakte of fiktiewe
entiteite in hierdie wêreld; om deur benoeming grense vir ’n kategorie te skep,
om daaroor te kan praat (of om daarna te kan verwys). Alhoewel daar
verskillende metodes bestaan op grond waarvan entiteite benoem word, is daar
veral twee wat van besondere belang is:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">1.1. ’n
Begrip (konsep) ontwikkel – ook in kompleksiteit – en “vra” eintlik om ’n naam.
</span><span lang="NL-BE">Dit het byvoorbeeld
gebeur met die ontwikkeling van die konsep “Afrikaans”. Dit is afwisselend
benoem met ’n waarde-beoordelende benaming soos “Plat-Hollands” en skriftelike
benoemings soos “Transvaals” (1887), “Afrikaander Taal” (1901), “The Taal” (na
1902), “Burensprache” (1904), “Boer Dutch” (ongeveer 1904), “Le Langue des
Boers” (1911) en “Zuid-Afrikaansch” (vergelyk Nienaber, 1949: 98-100). Die
aangehaalde benoemings illustreer by implikasie twee baie belangrike
benoemingsbeginsels, naamlik <i>prototipebenoeming </i>en <i>beheersendepuntoordeel</i>.<b>
</b></span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE"><span style="font-size: large;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="NL-BE">1.1.1. <i>Prototipe van ’n kategorie</i>. Om van enige
kategorie betekenissin te maak, word ’n prototipe van die kategorie
geïdentifiseer op grond waarvan lede van die kategorie herken word. Die
identifikasie van sodanige prototipe is ’n natuurlike menslike
konseptualiseringsverskynsel wat ons verder in staat stel om oor kategorieë te
praat, om betekenis te gee aan kategorieë – om kategorieë, dus ons leefwêreld,
te begryp. </span><span lang="EN-US">Langacker (1987: 371) beskryf ’n
prototipe as “a typical instance of a category, and other elements are assimilated
to the category on the basis of their perceived resemblance to the prototype;
there are degrees of membership based on degrees of similarity”. </span><span lang="NL-BE">In gevalle waar kategorieë konkrete
entiteite groepeer, bepaal omgewings- en kulturele faktore die mees
prominente/sentrale (dit wil sê die mees prototipiese) lede van die kategorie.
So sal die referente van <i>appel</i>, <i>pruim</i>, <i>vy</i>, <i>olyf</i>
ensovoorts in verskillende kontekste onderskeidelik as die prototipes van die
woord <i>vrug</i> optree. In die geval van abstrakte kategorieë word die saak
egter veel komplekser, want dan moet <i>prototipiese eienskappe</i> (nié <i>prototipe-elemente</i>
nie) verteenwoordigend van die kategorie word.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="NL-BE">1.1.2. Ten </span><span lang="EN-US">opsigte</span><span lang="NL-BE"> van die <i>beheersende punt</i> wys
MacLaury (1991: 59) daarop dat die mate waarin ’n prototipe óf ’n
gemiddelde lid, óf ’n toonbeeld (volmaakte lid) van die kategorie kan wees,
saamhang met die gesigs- of beheersende punt waaruit die kategoriseerder
beoordeel: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;"> “Different
individuals place importance on distinct attributes of the members of a
category. As a consequence they select different members as prototypical, they
rank members at different values, and they contract or dilate a category to
different extents.”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;"> Uiteraard
impliseer die beheersende punt veel meer as ’n lokaliteit. Dit omvat kulturele,
ideologiese, emosionele, rasionele, historiese en ander veranderlikes, aspekte waarop
nie in hierdie oorsig uitgebrei kan word nie.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">1.2. ’n Nuwe entiteit kom tot stand en word
benoem (soos dit die geval was met die <i>Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit</i>).
Verskeie <i>benoemingsveranderlikes</i> kan in sodanige geval ’n rol speel,
onder andere die koördinate tyd, ruimte en entiteit – vereenvoudig saamgevat as
identiteit (later “karakter”). Dit spreek vanself dat in die geval van ’n
universiteit die genoemde dimensies geïntegreerd baie gou ’n
identiteitskompleksiteit in die hand werk. Dit word teweeggebring deur
veranderlikes soos die volgende:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">universiteitspesifieke
akademiese prestasies;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">universiteitspesifieke
sportprestasies;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">universiteitspesifieke
navorsingsprestasies;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">universiteitspesifieke
navorsingsbetrokkenheid;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">internasionalisering van die besondere
universiteit;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">gemeenskapsdiens van die
spesifieke universiteit;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">onderrigmodelle van die
spesifieke universiteit; en nog vele ander.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Hieruit
ontwikkel ’n stel prototipiese eienskappe van die betrokke universiteit wat
baie meer impliseer as wat deur enige individu of groep individue as
prototipe-element(e) verteenwoordig kan word. Hierdie p</span><span lang="NL-BE">rototipiese eienskappe vorm saam ’n <i>gestalt</i>.
Lakoff & Johnson (1980: 478-481) noem byvoorbeeld dat by abstrakte
kategorieë die definiërende eienskappe van ’n kategorie ’n prototipeparadigma
daarstel. </span><span lang="EN-US">Ons konseptuele ervaring daarvan is egter dié
van ’n gestalt, omdat “the complex of properties occurring together is more
basic to our experience than their separate occurrences.” </span><span lang="NL-BE">Sodanige prototipegestalt stel ons
dan in staat om die konsep op ander ervaringsdomeine (ook subdomeine) wat
minder prototipies kan wees, toe te pas. <i>Dit is belangrik om daarop te let
dat sodanige gestalt veral op grond van kwaliteite (en nié noodwendig
kwantiteite nie) tot stand kom</i>. In die geval van ’n eienaam (soos die <i>Randse
Afrikaanse Universiteit</i> of <i>RAU</i> – laasgenoemde ’n akroniem, of
letterwoord, met eienaamstatus) tree die gestalt op as ’n deskriptiewe
betekenisagtergrond (“descriptive backing”) op (vergelyk Searle, 1969 – soos na
verwys deur De Klerk, 1978: 66). Eenvoudig gestel verteenwoordig dit die
“beeld” van die universiteit.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL-BE"><span style="font-size: large;">2. Naamsverandering<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="NL-BE">In die lig van die voorgaande kort (en
uiteraard onvolledige) oorsig spreek dit vanself dat die Shakespeariaanse
naamsopvatting “</span><span lang="EN-US">What's
in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet” ’n
konseptuele mite is. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Wanneer ’n naam verander word (byvoorbeeld die
<i>Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit</i>) sal dus rekening gehou moet word met die
volgende faktore:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-US">Omdat ’n naamservaring ’n
konseptuele ervaring is, is sy prototipiese gestalt eenvoudig nie klakkeloos
oordraagbaar nie. Die nuwe naam sal sy eie gestalt moet ontwikkel.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Die verlede onder die noemer <i>Randse
Afrikaanse Universiteit</i> is nie ophefbaar deur die gebruik van ’n nuwe naam
nie. Konseptueel sal <i>Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit</i> dus minstens vir die
afsienbare toekoms bly voortbestaan <i>in kontras</i> met die “nuwe
universiteit”, geïmpliseer deur die nuwe naam. Dit kan meebring dat die
Universiteit eintlik onder ’n ou en ’n nuwe noemer met homself in wedywering
is, wat die natuurlike gestalt-ontwikkeling van die Universiteit binne ’n nuwe
politieke orde aan bande kan lê. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Daar word gewag gemaak van die
“bagasie” wat die huidige naam met hom saamdra. Die term is ideologies omstrede
omdat dit enersyds ’n bepaalde beheersende punt (van die dag) impliseer, en
andersyds die suggestie dra dat die huidige prototipegestalt gedrenk is in wat
as “bagasie” beskou word. Dit impliseer dat die onderrig, wetenskapsbeoefening
en gemeenskapsdiens van die verlede deur ’n bepaalde ideologie gedra is, wat
natuurlik die wetenskaplike integriteit van almal wat onder daardie noemer
gefunksioneer het, in die gedrang bring. Anders kan “bagasie” geïnterpreteer
word as alles wat met Afrikaans saamhang, wat die begrip nog meer omstrede maak
omdat <i>Afrikaans</i> dan gelykgestel word met ’n eng siening van <i>dié
Afrikaner</i> – ’n subkategorie wat as Afrikanergestalt nooit bestaan het of
bestaan nie (in ’n artikel ter perse brei ek daarop uit).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Die gronde vir ’n naamsverandering
– kwalitatief of kwantitatief – behoort duidelik verreken te word. Indien dit
kwantitatief van aard sou wees, behoort die verhouding “aandeelhouers”
(verwerwers van RAU-grade) en “potensiële aandeelhouers” (potensiële verwerwers
van RAU-grade) teenoor mekaar verreken te word. Sodanige uitgangspunt sal egter
hoegenaamd nie rekening hou met die prototipiese gestalt van die Universiteit
nie. Dit sou één eienskap wat uiteiendelik tot die gestalt-aard bydra, tot
dominante eienskap uithef!<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Verwysings<o:p></o:p></span></span></h1>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">De Klerk, W.J. 1978. <i>Inleiding to die
semantiek</i>. Durban: Butterworth.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Lakoff, G. &
M. Johnson<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">.</span> 1980. Conceptual
metaphor in everyday language. In: <i>The journal of philosophy</i>, LXXVII:8,
453-486.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Langacker, R.W.
1987. <i>Foundations of cognitive grammar</i>. Stanford: Stanford University
Press.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">MacLaury, R. E<i>.</i> 1991. Prototypes
revisited. In: <i>Annual reviews Anthropology</i> 20, 55-74.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE"><span style="font-size: large;">Nienaber, G.S.
1949. <i>Oor Afrikaans</i>. Johannesburg: APB.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-45181694591452440042016-12-16T11:28:00.001+02:002016-12-16T11:31:47.603+02:00Perspektiewe op rassisme<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR. KLIK OP DIE PYLTJIE BY NOVEMBER VIR TOEGANG.</b></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: x-large;">Perspektiewe op rassisme</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Te oordeel
aan daaglikse beriggewing is rassisme in Suid-Afrika aan die orde van die dag –
dít ten spyte van ’n grondwet wat die beginsel van gelykheid vooropstel. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Meestal hou
sodanige beriggewing verband met ervarings van “beweerde” rassisme. Daar kan
inderdaad van “beweerde” gepraat word omdat die beoordeling van die betrokke
verskynsel nie altyd ’n konsensussaak is nie. Dikwels is dié “in the eye of the
beholder”-verskynsel toe te skryf aan die feit dat die woord <i>rassisme</i>
nie ’n werkwoord-ekwivalent het nie – soos wat dit trouens die geval met seker
die meeste van die -<i>isme</i>-woorde is. Beoordelaars van die verskynsel doen
dit dus op grond van hulle evaluerings of ervarings van handelinge of praktyke
wat as “rassisties” geëtiketteer word. Die mees tipiese praktyke wat in hierdie
vangnet tuishoort, word ondervang deur handelinge wat in die werkwoord <i>diskrimineer</i>
gemanifesteer word. Ook hierdie woord kan egter ’n sambreel wees vir baie
aanstootgewende en diskrediterende aktiwiteite. Maar in die betekenis van <i>diskrimineer
</i>is baie meer en ook baie minder as rassisme opgesluit. Dit blyk duidelik
uit talle woordeboekdefinisies van die woord <i>diskrimineer</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Daar
bestaan ook ’n opvatting – miskien alreeds mities – dat die rigting van handelinge
wat onder die verskynsel rassisme geklassifiseer kan word, eenrigtinghandelinge
is. Die Suid-Afrikaanse praktyk weerspieël die teendeel. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Word die
handelinge wat onder die begrip ‘rassisme’ gelys word, onder oë geneem, blyk
dit dat ’n hele aaantal faktore daartoe bydra. In hierdie opsig kan die
volgende genoem word:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol";">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">’n Rassistiese handeling veronderstel die
toepassing van ’n onderskeidende kriterium wat vir die individue van die groep
waarop dit toegepas word, individuele en/of kollektiewe nadelige gevolge inhou
ten opsigte van sy/haar/hulle fisiese, materiële, psigiese, sosiale, kulturele
en ander aspekte van hulle welstand.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol";">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">’n Rassistiese handeling word as sodanig
benoem uit die aard van die effek wat die handeling op ’n individu of groep het
op grond van ’n werklike/gewaande natuurlike of geïnstigeerde weerloosheid.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol";">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Rassistiese handelinge geskied vanuit ’n
posisie van mag, gewaande mag of vergeldende mag.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol";">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">Binne
’n bepaalde samelewing kan rassistiese handelinge geïnstitusionaliseerd of nie-
geïnstitusionaliseerd bedryf word. ’n Hedendaagse opvatting ten opsigte van die
klassifikasie van rassistiese handelinge maak voorsiening vir die onderskeiding
van ’n sogenaamde ‘kulturele rassisme’ – wat oor die grense van die
eersgenoemde onderkeiding sny.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Binne die
Suid-Afrikaanse konteks is dit miskien nodig om vraagstukke soos die volgende
grondig te ondersoek:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">1.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">Wat beteken die begrip ‘rassisme’?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">2.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">Maak die Grondwet voldoende voorsiening vir
’n nie-rassistiese samelewing?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">3.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">Wat is die aard van rassistiese handelinge
binne die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">4.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Wat bied ’n historiese perspektief (meer as
net die onmiddellike Suid-Afrikaanse verlede) op rassisme?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">5.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Watter rol speel moraliteit en die
moraliteitstoonaangewers ten opsigte van die uitwissing van rassistiese
praktyke?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">6.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Hoe moet die beginsel van bemagtiging ter
uitwissing van rassisme beoordeel word – as die ontwikkeling van geleenthede
ter bemagtiging, óf ’n verrysing uit die as van die ontmagtigdes?</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "brush script"; font-size: 14.0pt;"> W. Botha<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-75419185515208337472016-11-26T14:52:00.003+02:002016-11-26T15:00:50.674+02:00Die metafoor: 'n oorsig<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
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<b style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></div>
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></i>
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">My
toenmalige letterkundekollega, prof. Willie Burger (tans hoof van die
departement Afrikaans aan die Universiteit van Pretoria), het my destyds gevra
om ’n gaslesing oor die metafoor vir sy letterkunde-honneursstudente aan te
bied. Wat hier onder volg, is aantekeninge wat ek gemaak het ter voorbereiding
van die lesing.</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die
metafoor: ’n oorsig<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">W.J. Botha<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #2e74b5; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“<i>Thomas did not realize at the
time that metaphors are dangerous. Metaphors are not to be trifled with. A
single metaphor can give birth to love.</i>”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #2e74b5; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> (Kundera,
1984).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Enkele beskouings ten opsigte van die metafoor<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Dirven (1994) wys daarop
dat die definisie van ’n metafoor eintlik self ’n metafoor is: die Griekse
woord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">meta-ferein</span></i>
beteken “om oor te dra”.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Aristoteles: “Metafoor is die toepassing op een saak van
’n naam behorende aan ’n ander saak, die oordrag kan wees óf van genus na
spesie óf van spesie na genus, óf van spesie na spesie, óf op grond van
analogie” (<i>Poetica</i>: XXI,4).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Kittay</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> (1987): “Metaphor is not a unit of discourse, but a use of discourse,
and as such belongs to pragmatics”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Volgens Tourangeau (1982) behels die metafoor
die oorspronklike siening van twee onderwerpe, op ’n oorspronklike manier
voorgestel, en laat die metafoor ons verbande tussen twee domeine op ’n nuwe
manier insien: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“(P)art of filling out a metaphor consists of viewing a
subject from the vantage point of a particular domain; … beliefs about the one
subject must be altered in several ways to fit the other.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Tradisioneel</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">: <b>substitusie</b> (<i>m</i> = <i>l</i>); <b>vergelyking</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Kognitiewe</span></b><b><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">
beskouing van die metafoor<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Max Black </span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">(1962)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die kognitiewe benadering
tot die metafoor het reeds sy beslag gekry in Black (1962) se <b>interaksieteorie</b> oor die metafoor.
Black wou met sy interaksiebeskouing wegbeweeg van die tradisionele
substitusie- en vergelykingsverklarings. Vereenvoudig gestel impliseer hierdie
beskouing dat by die gebruik van die metafoor twee gedagtes oor verskillende
dinge gesamentlik geaktiveer word en deur ’n enkele woord of uitdrukking gedra
word, waarvan die betekenis die resultaat van die interaksie is. Hy gebruik die
term “fokale woord” vir die betrokke metafoorwoord/frase wat
betekenisuitbreiding ondergaan as gevolg van die interaksie. In ’n gegewe
metaforiese konteks (byvoorbeeld <i><span style="color: #c00000;">reënboognasie</span></i>) verkry die fokale woord (<i><span style="color: #c00000;">nasie</span></i>)
’n nuwe betekenis, wat nie eintlik die betekenis daarvan in die letterlike
gebruik is nie, en ook nie eintlik die betekenis is wat enige letterlike
substituut sou hê nie. Die betekenisdomein wat deur betekenisuitbreiding as
resultaat van die interaksie tot stand gekom het, noem hy die metafoorraam: die
nuwe konteks. Om die metafoor te begryp, moet die ontvanger dus sowel die ou as
nuwe betekenisse van die woord saam interpreteer. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vir die metafoor onderskei
Black ’n “system of commonplaces”, kennis wat die ontvanger nodig het op grond
waarvan sekere brokkies inligting deurgelaat word of gekeer word. In die geval
van die <i><span style="color: #c00000;">reënboognasie</span></i>-metafoor
filtreer en transformeer die metafoor vanuit die “system of commonplaces”
inligting sodanig dat ’n nuwe betekenisstruktuur tot stand kom ten opsigte
waarvan <i>nasie</i> verstaan word: die
versmelting van verskillende etniese kleurgroepe met behoud van
kleuroutonimiteit. Die “system of commonplaces” verwys nie noodwendig na die
woordeboekdefinisie van die woord nie; dit kan selfs halwe waarhede of valse
opvattings ten opsigte van die betrokke woord se betekenis impliseer. Kortom:
die “system of commonplaces” is gemeenskap- of kultuurgebonde.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Kartering</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die kognitiewe benadering
tot die metafoor sluit nou by die interaksiebeskouing van Black aan, alhoewel
bepaalde terme binne die twee benaderings verskillende verwysingsmoontlikhede
het, byvoorbeeld die begrip “raam”. Binne eersgenoemde beskouing bied die
begrip <b>konseptuele metafoor</b><i> </i>’n funksionele beskrywingsraam vir die
metafoor. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die
metafoor word hiervolgens beoordeel as ’n <u>konseptuele karteringsproses</u>:
“(t)he basic logic of (a) donor domain (<span style="color: #538135;">brondomein</span>)
… is applied to a different area of experience, the receptor domain (<span style="color: #7030a0;">doelwitdomein</span>)” (Taylor, 1995). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vergelyk die volgende voorbeelde:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Some say <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">love</span> </b>(<span style="color: #7030a0;">doelwitdomein</span>), it is <span style="color: #538135; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">a river</span><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">
(<span style="color: #538135;">brondomein</span>)</span> / <i><span style="color: #c00000;">that drowns the tender reed</span></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Some say <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">love</span></b>
(<span style="color: #7030a0;">doelwitdomein</span>), it is <span style="color: #538135; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">a razor</span> <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">(<span style="color: #538135;">brondomein</span>)
</span>/ <i><span style="color: #c00000;">that leaves your soul to bleed</span></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Some say <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">love</span></b><span style="color: #7030a0;"> </span>(<span style="color: #7030a0;">doelwitdomein</span>),
it is <span style="color: #538135; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">a hunger</span><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;"> (<span style="color: #538135;">brondomein</span>)</span>,
/ <i><span style="color: #c00000;">an endless
aching need</span></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">I say <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">love </span></b>(<span style="color: #7030a0;">doelwitdomein</span>), it is <span style="color: #538135; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">a flower</span> <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">(<span style="color: #538135;">brondomein</span>) </span>/ and <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">you</span></b>, its <span style="color: #538135; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">only seed</span><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">
(<span style="color: #538135;">brondomein</span>)</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die betreklike bysinne en nabepalings by die
betrokke brondomein-naamwoordstukke (byvoorbeeld <i><span style="color: #c00000;">that
drowns the tender reed</span></i><span style="color: #c00000; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> </span>en andere) funksioneer
as verdere spesifikasies van die referente van die brondomeine, meestal ter
verdere verkonkretisering. Hierdie aspek sal nie verder bespreek word nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Taylor wys verder daarop
dat dié proses ’n aantal metaforiese uitvloeisels (“entailments”) tot gevolg
het – wat ons by konseptuele versmelting bring.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Konseptuele versmelting (“blending”)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die kognitiewe struktuur
van ’n metafoor berus verder op die beginsel van konseptuele versmelting, “a
general cognitive process … that operates over mental spaces as inputs”
(Fauconnier & Turner, 1996). Oakley (1998) wys daarop dat konseptuele
versmelting sodanig werk dat dit agtergrondaannames in ooreenstemmende
taalvorme neerslag laat vind. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Hy beskryf die proses soos volg: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 8.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“Working
over an array of <b>mental spaces</b> –
online conceptual packets built up as we think, talk, and understand – blending
occurs when two or more <i>input spaces</i>
in cooperation with a <b><i>generic space</i></b> project <i>partial structure</i> into a fourth space
known as the <b><i>blend</i></b>. The blend inherits partial structure from each input
space and develops its own <i>emergent
structure</i>.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Gevolglik word die
metafoor teen die agtergrond van die konseptuele versmelting verstaan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">In die Black-beskouing
word in hierdie verband na die
“metafoorraam” verwys: die nuwe konteks. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die betekenisstruktuur
van die resulterende versmelte ruimte (“blend”) put egter ook uit ’n generiese
ruimte, “a distinct mental space operating at a low level of description which
can provide the category, frame, role, identity, or image-schematic rationale
for cross-domain mapping” (vergelyk Oakley, 1998). </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">In
’n oppervlakkige vergelyking sou generiese ruimte aan Black se “system of
commonplaces” gelykgestel kon word. Die Black-term impliseer egter meer as
generiese ruimte. Dit omvat ook wat binne die kognitiewe opvatting as “raam”
bekend staan (“configurattions of culture-based knowledge ... knowledge which
is shared, or which is believed to be shared, by at least some segment of a
speech community” – vergelyk Taylor, 1995); asook die term “</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">kulturele
script”, </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“de culturele waarden en normen voor een of ander
aspect of fragment van het gedrag van de mens in een bepaalde cultuur” (vergelyk
Dirven & Verspoor, 1999).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Konseptuele
metafore </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">(subkategorie
van die konvensionele metafore)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 242px; margin-left: 10px; margin-top: 1600px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 468px; z-index: -1895825920;"><img height="161" src="file:///C:/Users/Willie/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026" width="312" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Wat is vreemd aan die volgende
illustrasie?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0KCDqY50Y6fg9EOIQun3D1HtNTydTH5DRR_Ua_kj8MrVwH60NH5qyZukwvK85ZQNyCm_5JiYnfcrkGSvpsVA30rmLahWTIko2PyETz9DMTfoLli_J3N_fAutp2EgFjcpn_kvSqwE8JHTj/s1600/World+mapC.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0KCDqY50Y6fg9EOIQun3D1HtNTydTH5DRR_Ua_kj8MrVwH60NH5qyZukwvK85ZQNyCm_5JiYnfcrkGSvpsVA30rmLahWTIko2PyETz9DMTfoLli_J3N_fAutp2EgFjcpn_kvSqwE8JHTj/s640/World+mapC.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
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<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><a href="https://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj47_q__L7QAhXLaRQKHbLgDK4QjRwIBw&url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Maps_of_the_world&psig=AFQjCNHzxiFST0wssCFzw-EfWi7KZrChbw&ust=1479993744219360" target="_blank"></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 117.3pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; text-align: justify;">Op grond van en gebaseer op die meeste mense se
(geografiese) kennis van die ruimtelike kaartuitdrukking van windrigtings word </span><span style="color: #c45911; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; text-align: justify;">noord is bo</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; text-align: justify;"> as ’n
konseptuele metafoor ervaar – getransponeer vanuit die ruimtelike oriëntasie
van die menslike liggaam. Daarom sal die bostaande voorstelling vir die meeste
mense vreemd aandoen.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Dit is in ooreenstemming met die Lakoff &
Johnson-uitspraak (1980):<b> </b>“Our </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">concepts</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"> structure what we perceive, how we get around in the
world, and how we relate to other people. Our conceptual system thus plays a
central role in </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">defining</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"> our everyday
realities. If we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely
metaphorical, then the way we think, what we experience, and what we do every
day is very much a matter of </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">metaphor.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Op grond van </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">die</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"> bostaande insig
word drie soorte </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #c45911; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">konvensionele
metafore</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"> onderskei, wat op die oog af na letterlike
taalgebruik lyk. Dit ontken nie die bestaan van kreatiewe metafore nie, maar
albei soorte kan dikwels eksemplare wees van dieselfde algemene metafoor.
Vergelyk die volgende respektiewelik kreatiewe en konvensionele metafore wat
albei gebaseer is op die volgende algemene metafoor: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #c45911; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">teorieë is geboue:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 17.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Sy teorie oor X
het baie gange (kreatiewe metafoor / taalmetafoor)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 17.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Hy het sy teorie
oor X baie sistematies gestruktureer (<b>konvensionele
metafoor</b>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Onderverdeling van </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #c45911; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">konvensionele
metafore</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 17.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Strukturele
metafore</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">
/ <b>konseptuele metafore</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vergelyk
die volgende konseptuele metafore uit die Bybel:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 14.2pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">Niemand het God nog ooit
gesien nie, maar as ons mekaar liefhet, bly God </span></i><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">in</span></b><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">[<span style="color: #c45911; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n vuller</span>] <i>ons en het sy liefde </i></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">in</span></b><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> ons sy doel volkome bereik </span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">(1 Johannes
4:12).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL-BE;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 14.2pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">En ons ken die liefde wat
God vir ons het, en ons glo daarin. God is liefde; wie </span></i><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">in</span></b><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> die liefde bly</span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> [<span style="color: #c45911; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n
houer</span>]<i>, bly </i></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">in</span></b><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> God en God
bly </span></i><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">in</span></b><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> hom</span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> (1
Johannes 4:16).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 35.4pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">In hierdie voorbeelde word die ervaring van liefde (’n
abstraksie) verstaan en weergegee in meer konkrete begripservarings van <span style="color: #c45911; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">vullers</span> en <span style="color: #c45911; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">houers</span>, gebaseer op
prekonseptuele beeldskematiese ervarings in die proses van taalverwerwing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Soortgelyk
word liefde (’n abstraksie) verstaan op grond van prekonseptuele kragervarings
– <span style="color: #c45911; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n krag</span>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 14.2pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">Die <u>liefde van Christus</u>
<b>dring</b> [</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #c45911; font-size: 14pt;">liefde is ’n
krag]</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: AF;">ons<i>, omdat ons tot die insig gekom het dat een vir
almal gesterwe het, en dit beteken dat almal gesterwe het</i> (2 Korintiërs
5:14).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Uiteindelik</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> struktureer ’n hele konstellasie konseptuele metafore (die
besonderhede daarvan kan nie hier uitgespel word nie) <b>kontekstueel</b> die volgende metafoor in die Bybel: <span style="color: #c45911; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">God is liefde</span>.</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 17.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Fisiese (ontologiese) metafore</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Fisiese<b> </b>metafore – word dikwels ook ontologiese [“the nature of being”] metafore genoem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Ontologiese
metafore</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> dui op metafore “wat entiteits- of substansiestatus
afbeeld op konsepte wat nie hierdie status het nie (bv. metafore soos IDEES IS
ENTITEITE en WOORDE IS HOUERS)”. Ontologiese metafore word veral gebruik “om
kunsmatige grense op entiteite te projekteer wat andersins nie ’n diskrete of
fisiese gebonde karakter het nie, d.i. wesentlik nie as </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">substansies</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> of entiteite bestaan nie (bv. berge,
straathoeke, heinings, pryse, woede, liefde, angs, ens.). Die kognitiewe
noodsaak vir hierdie projeksies is dat dit die mens in staat stel om na hierdie
ongebonde entiteite te verwys, hulle te kategoriseer, te groepeer en te
kwantifiseer; kortom: om op ’n rasionele wyse met hierdie konsepte om te gaan. Gebeure
en handelinge word metafories byvoorbeeld gekonseptualiseer as voorwerpe,
aktiwiteite as substansies en toestande as houers”. <i>Personifikasie</i> vorm ’n subklas van ontologiese metafore deurdat
nie-menslike entiteite as menslike entiteite gekonseptualiseer word en sodoende
dus binne die menslike begripsveld gebring word, bv. </span><span style="color: #c45911; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Tyd heel wonde</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Oriëntasiemetafore</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Oriëntasiemetafore</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;"> <b>struktureer</b> nie die een konsep in terme
van ’n ander nie, maar organiseer ’n hele sisteem konsepte in terme van mekaar.
Heelwat basiese betekenisstrukture is terugherleibaar na die individu se
perseptuele en liggaamlike interaksie met sy omgewing. Kinders se belewing van
byvoorbeeld die beweging en vorms van voorwerpe, die tekstuur van objekte en
interaksies met ander mense lei tot basiese skematiese strukture (beeldskemas)
waarvolgens eerste fundamentele belewings georganiseer word. Oriëntasiemetafore verwys dus in
besonder na metafore waar die brondomein gekoppel kan word aan die mens se
belewing van sy ruimtelike oriëntasie. Hierdie basiese ruimtelike oriëntasie
van die brondomein word dan ook oordragtelik in die doeldomein weerspieël. Die
tipes metafore wat veral onder hierdie tipe metafoor ressorteer, is byvoorbeeld
metafore wat ’n <i>voor</i>/<i>agter</i>-, <i>in</i>/<i>uit</i>-, <i>op</i>/<i>af</i>-,
<i>diep</i>/<i>vlak</i>-, <i>sentrum</i>/<i>periferie</i>-, <i>naby</i>/<i>ver</i>-
en <i>links</i>/<i>regs</i>-oriëntasie as basis het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vergelyk die polarisasie t.o.v. verskillende
oriëntasies waar <i>bo</i>, <i>voor</i> en <i>regs</i> positief en <i>onder</i>,
<i>agter</i> en<b> </b><i>links</i><b> </b>negatief
gemerk word in Afrikaans talig vergestalt:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">POSITIEF:
<i>bo</i>, <i>voor</i>, <i>regs</i> NEGATIEF:
<i>onder</i>, <i>agter</i>, <i>links</i><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">voor</span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">spoed <u>agter</u>baks<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><u>voor</u>reg <u>agter</u>af <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><u>voor</u>aanstaande
<u>agter</u>straat <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><u>voor</u>keur <u>agter</u>dog<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">die
<u>boonste</u> sport <u>onder</u>duims<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><u>boon</u>toe
streef <u>onder</u>grawe<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><u>bo</u>baas <u>onder</u>gang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">hou
die blink kant <u>bo</u> die <u>onder</u>spit delf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">iemand
se <u>regter</u>hand <u>linkse</u> streke<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">iemand
met twee <u>regter</u>hande iemand met twee <u>linker</u>hande<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">nie <u>links</u> wees nie
<u>links</u>
van die regering wees<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Neuralenetwerkteorie<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Vergelyk die volgende uitsprake van Lakoff
& Johson (<i>Philosophy in the flesh</i>):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“The first and most important thing to realize about <b>categorization</b>
is that it is an inescapable consequence of our neural makeup. We are neural
beings. Our brains each have 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion synaptic
connections. It is common in the brain for information to be passed from one
dense ensemble of neurons to another dense ensemble via a relatively sparse set
of connections. Whenever this happens, the pattern of activation distributed
over the first set of neurons is too great to be represented in a one-to-one
manner in the sparse set of connections. Therefore, the sparse set of connections
necessarily groups together certain input patterns in mapping them across to
the output ensemble. Whenever a neural ensemble provides the same output with
different inputs, there is neural categorization.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">“What metaphor does is to allow us to reason about abstract domains using
inferences from concrete domains that are highly structured in our experience.
It allows us to map inference patterns from concrete to abstract domains. All
metaphorical inference, it appears, is a projection of sensorimotor inference
patterns onto abstract domains. Neural projections from sensorimotor areas of
the brain to areas responsible for abstract reason appear to be responsible for
metaphorical thought: they permit us to take nonmetaphorical inference
mechanisms from the sensorimotor areas and put them to use in carrying out
abstract inferences. … The linguistic function of metaphor is secondary.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Gebaremetafore
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Eve Sweetser van die </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Department of Linguistics, University of California
at Berkeley, beweer onder andere die volgende wat gebaremetafore betref:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Handgebare impliseer meer genuanseerde
“betekenisse” as wat algemeen as “body language” bekend staan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">In ooreenstemming met een van die belangrike
beginsels van metafore – om abstraksies meer konkreet voor te stel – dien
handgebare onder andere as metafore.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die gebareruimte
(“gesture space”) konstitueer belangrike “betekenis-onderdele”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Enkele slotgedagtes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die metafoor
is in die eerste plek ’n begripsinstrument, ’n kognitiewe werktuig wat in taal gemanifesteer
word – omdat die wyse waarop ons konseptualiseer, metafories van aard is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Die wese van
die metafoor is: “… understanding and experiencing one kind of thing or
experience in terms of another” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Ons volstaan
met die volgende beskrywing van die metafoor, aldus Lakoff (1990:49):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Wat die metafoor tot stand bring, is nie soseer
’n besondere woord of uitdrukking nie. Die metafoor kom tot stand op grond van
ontologiese en epistemiese kartering wat vanaf ’n brondomein na ’n
doelwitdomein geskied. Dit is dus nie slegs taal wat die metafoor konstitueer
nie - maar ook denke en rede. Die taal vergestalt slegs die karteringsproses.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<br />
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<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">Opmerking</span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">: ’n Bronnelys word nie
hier weergegee nie omdat hierdie oorsig as onderrigaantekeninge gegeld het en
dit dus nie ’n wesenlike artikel is nie. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-53152397260914548532016-11-25T12:30:00.000+02:002016-11-26T14:21:19.333+02:00Diversiteit binne identiteit, en identiteit binne diversiteit<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0cm; text-align: center;">
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<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></div>
<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #990000; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #990000; font-size: 16pt;">Hoofreferaat tydens die internasionale SAALA/LSSA -kongres: Diversiteit in identiteit, en identiteit in diversiteit. Pietermaritzburg, Suid-Afrika, 9 Julie 2002.</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Diversiteit binne identiteit, en identiteit binne diversiteit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Inleidende opmerkings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Omdat ek nie weet hoe goed u vertroud is met die kognitiewe linguistiek nie, wil ek aanvanklik ’n paar inleidende opmerkings oor die bepaalde dissipline as sodanig maak. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Ek baseer hierdie kort uiteensetting op ’n opmerking wat Langacker in 1993 gemaak het ten opsigte van die verhouding wat daar bestaan tussen <u>taalstruktuur</u> en <u>fundamentele geestesprosesse</u>. Hy stel dit soos volg: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">“(C)ognitive linguistics ... claims, in particular, that fundamental cognitive abilities and experientially derived </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">cognitive</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;"> models have direct and pervasive linguistic manifestations, and, conversely, that language structure furnishes important clues concerning basic mental phenomena”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hy onderskei vervolgens die volgende relevante begrippe: beeldskemas; kragdinamika; gesubjektiveerde versus geobjektiveerde konstruering; kognitiewe verwysingspunte; en verbandlegging tussen kognitiewe domeine (“mental spaces”).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Langacker se opmerking moet oorweeg word teen die agtergrond van prinsipiële beskouings soos die volgende: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Dirven</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> gee ’n omvattende beskrywing van taal as hy beweer: “Language is shaped by our perception of our ecological world, by cognition, by culture”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Lakoff</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"> en Johnson (1997) in ’n elektroniese voor-publikasie-manuskrip (<i>Philosophy in the flesh</i>) laat geen twyfel oor die ingrypende bevindinge van die kognitiewe linguistiek ten opsigte van die toekomstige rol daarvan nie. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hulle stel dit soos volg: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">“The mind is </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">inherently</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;"> embodied. Thought is mostly unconscious. Abstract concepts are largely metaphorical. These are three of the major findings of cognitive science<b> </b>in the late twentieth century. Because of them philosophy can never be the same again”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hulle verwys in hierdie verband na die Anglo-Amerikaanse filosofiese tradisie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Teen </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">hierdie</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"> agtergrond wil ek vervolgens kortliks aandag skenk aan die voorgenoemde geestesprosesse (en die intrinsieke verhouding van elkeen ten opsigte van taal), voordat ek enkele toepassings maak<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Taalvergestalting van fundamentele geestesprosesse<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Beeldskemas<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Ons begrip van die wêreld word onderlê deur ’n <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">beliggaamde</span></b> struktuur<b> </b>en ’n <b> <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">verbeelding</span></b>struktuur. Daarom is <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">beliggaming</span></b> ’n kernbeginsel van die kognitiewe linguistiek. Dit kom daarop neer dat ons abstraksies modelleer op grond van ons liggaamlike ervaring van die werklikheid in terme van ’n <u>verbeeldingstruktuur</u> wat saamgestel is uit<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> </span><b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">beeldskematiese strukture</span></b>. Sodanige beeldskematiese strukture hou verband met die menslike liggaamlike ervaring van onder andere die volgende<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">: <b>ruimte</b>, <b>krag</b>, <b>sensasie</b>, <b>basiesevlakobjekte</b></span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hierdie prekonseptuele strukture word (<b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">verbeeldingsmatig</span></b>) veral op twee maniere na die abstrakte denke getransponeer, naamlik by wyse van <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">analogie</span></b> en <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">metaforiek</span></b>. In hierdie opsig bestaan daar ’n parallelisme tussen <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">beliggaming</span></b> en die <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">prototipebeginsel</span></b> vir sover konkrete ervaring dien as verwysingsdomein op grond waarvan ander (abstrakte) ervarings by wyse van <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">ekstensie</span></b> gekonstrueer word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">Kategorie-ervaring</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"> (en gevolglik ook basiesevlakobjekte) hou direk hiermee verband – omdat kognisie berus op die vermoë om te kategoriseer, om te oordeel of ’n item (’n referent) ’n voorbeeld is van ’n besondere kategorie - dus: om ’n referent te benoem – op grond van konseptuele identifikasie! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die prototipebeginsel speel in hierdie opsig ’n belangrike rol. Die prototipeteorie hou verband met die twee asse van kategorisering [vergelyk die <i>plant</i>-diagram in Figuur 1]: die entiteit/ referent wat as prototipe van die kategorie optree, staan op die “horisontale vlak” in verhouding tot sy ko-hiponieme, maar op die “vertikale vlak” staan dit in verhouding tot ’n superordinaat op ’n hoër hiërargiese vlak, óf tree dit as superordinaat op ten opsigte van hiponieme op ’n laer hiërargiese vlak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">In aansluiting by die ervaringsbasis van betekenis word die prototipeteorie verder verfyn om die beheersendepuntteorie (“vantage point theory”) in te sluit. Dit beteken dat sprekers kategorieë kognitief konstrueer, in stand hou en verander na analogie van die wyse waarop hulle hul eie posisie ruimtelik ervaar en verstaan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Afgesien van basiesevlakobjekte (en sensassie) wat skematies gestruktureer is, kan ons twee groepe beeldskemas onderskei wat nou saamhang met beliggaming, naamlik <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">ruimtebeeldskemas</span></b> en die <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">kragbeeldskemas</span></b>. [Vergelyk Figuur 1.]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hulle is so diep gewortel deel van menslike ervaring is dat hulle <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">universele prelinguistiese strukture</span></b> daarstel. En die meeste skemas hou verband met ons ervaring van die menslike liggaam. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Kragdinamika</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">’n Alomteenwoordige ervaringsdimensie hou met <u>kraginteraksie</u> verband. Ons daaglikse bestaan word gekenmerk deur die <span style="text-transform: uppercase;">ERVARING </span>van kragte wat ons uitoefen, kragte wat op ons uitgeoefen word, en kragte wat in ons omgewing op mekaar inwerk. Sodanige kragte baan as tipiese patroonmatige ervarings hulle weg tot in ons betekenissisteem, ons taaluitdrukkingstruktuur en in ons talige kommunikasie as sodanig. In hierdie opsig tree hulle dus as beeldskemas op. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Gesubjektiveerde versus geobjektiveerde konstruering</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Grammatikalisering hou verband met subjektivering. Sodanige grammatikaliseringsprosesse is die mees algemene vorm van betekenisverandering. Namate ’n element meer gegrammatikaliseer raak, beweeg dit op ’n leksikaal-grammatikaal-kontinuum vanaf leksikaal na grammatikaal. In die mate waarin die konseptualiseerder dus kognitief minder bewus word van die leksikale inhoud van ’n element – as gevolg van die vermindering van konseptuele inhoud – word die konstruering van die element <i>maksimaal subjektief</i> (dus gegrammatikaliseer). Die term subjektief word hier in ’n bepaalde tegniese sin gebruik. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="A1"></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Kognitiewe verwysingspunte</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Teen die </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">agtergrond</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;"> van wat hy beeldskematiese vermoëns noem (op ’n abstrakter vlak as beeldskemas as sodanig) beskryf Langacker die verwysingspuntverskynsel as “the ability to invoke the conception of one entity for purposes of establishing mental contact with another, i.e., to single it out for individual conscious awareness”. </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hy voer verder aan dat die verwysingspuntvermoë benede die vlak van eksplisiete waarneming funksioneer. Die verwysingspuntverskynsel is ’n fundamentele en alomteenwoordige fenomeen, alhoewel ons grootliks onbewus daarvan bly – en as sodanig hou dit direk verband met <b>DEIKSIS</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Verbandlegging tussen kognitiewe domeine</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Binne die kognitiewe beskouing bied die begrip “konseptuele metafoor”<i> </i>’n funksionele beskrywingsraam vir die metafoor. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die metafoor word hiervolgens beoordeel as ’n konseptuele karteringsproses: “(t)he basic logic of the donor domain … is applied to a different area of experience, the receptor domain” – volgens </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Taylor</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die kognitiewe struktuur van ’n metafoor berus verder op die beginsel van konseptuele versmelting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Toegepaste kognitiewe linguistiek</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">In hierdie gedeelte word die taalmanifestasie van bogenoemde verskynsels toegepas op bepaalde taaluitingskontekste. In die lig van die kongrestema (<i>Vennote in diversiteit</i>) word twee Suid-Afrikaanse identiteitskwessies onder die loep geneem. Die eerste hou verband met <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">diversiteit binne identiteit</span></b> (met verwysing na Afrikaneridentiteit), terwyl die tweede betrek is by nasiebou en nasiewording binne ’n multikulturele samelewing – dit wil sê <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">identiteit binne diversiteit</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Afrikaneridentiteit</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">’n Nuwe </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">politieke</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"> orde in Suid-Afrika het vir die Afrikaner verlies van mag oor die hele politieke en maatskaplike spektrum meegebring. Magsverlies het die bindingskrag wat Afrikanernasionalisme op die Afrikaner gehad het uitermate verswak. Gepaard hiermee het bevindinge van die Waarheid-en-Versoeningskommissie die morele behoefte aan selfondersoek na vore gebring, veral met betrekking tot die kollektiewe aard van die Afrikaner. Dit het ’n intense debatvoering binne Afrikanergeledere oor die wese van die Afrikaner tot gevolg gehad – ’n debat wat telkens weer opflikker.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">In wese handel die debat oor Afrikaneridentiteit, dit wil sê die definiërende eienskappe van die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Afrikaans en die Afrikaner</span></b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Afrikaneridentiteit is heg verweef met ’n bewuste belewenis van Afrikaans as kultuurtaal. ’n Historiese relaas van die wisselwerkende ontwikkeling van ’n Afrikaner- en Afrikaansbewussyn onderskryf dit – ’n aspek waarop ek ongelukkig nie binne hierdie oorsig kan ingaan nie. Wat ek egter wel wil noem, is dat die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> aanvanklik konseptueel redelik probleemvry was as gevolg van die wye verwysingspektrum waarvoor dit gebruik is. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Afrikaans</span></b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">. Wat die taal ‘Afrikaans’ betref, het daar egter heelwat konseptuele verwarring geheers. Van der Merwe twyfel byvoorbeeld of die benaming ‘Afrikaans’ hoegenaamd in die agtiende eeu reeds bekend was. Nienaber se uiteensetting van vroeëre naamgewingspogings in hierdie verband bevestig dit grootliks. Die samestelling ‘Kaaps-Hollands’ is die naam wat aanvanklik gebruik is vir hierdie dialek of ‘variant van Hollands op Kaapse bodem’ – naamgewing wat op ’n konseptuele integrasie dui: lokalisering en besondersheid ten opsigte van die historiese en gemeenskaplike.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Namate die benaming ‘Kaaps-Hollands’ onder Afrikaansgesindes begin verdwyn het, het dit buite die groep en by buitelanders bly vassteek. Dit is afgewissel met ’n waardebeoordelende benaming soos ‘Plat-Hollands’ en skriftelike benoemings soos ‘Transvaals’ (1887), ‘Afrikaander Taal’ (1901), ‘The Taal’ (na 1902), ‘Burensprache’ (1904), ‘Boer Dutch’ (onge-veer 1904), ‘Le Langue des Boers’ (1911) en ‘Zuid-Afrikaansch’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Afrikaner</span></b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">. Van die eerste pogings om die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’ formeel te omskryf, kom van die <i>Patriot-Woordeboek</i>, wat die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> in 1902 soos volg beskryf: ‘white man born in Africa’. Vroeëre woordeboeke, soos die <i>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal</i> wat in 1882 gepubliseer is, bevat nog nie die inskrywing <i>Afrikaner</i> nie. Die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> kom wel in Van Dale sedert 1917 voor: “in Zuid-Afrika geboren blanke van Europeeschen oorsprong”. Van die Afrikaanse taal is daar hoegenaamd nie sprake nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Vergelyk ons verskillende Nederlandse woordeboekdefinisies sedert 1917, vind ons dat afgesien van die <i>WNT</i>-supplement die Nederlandse woordeboeke deurgaans die Afrikaanse taal as ’n kenmerk van die Afrikaner verswyg. Dit kom, daarenteen, in die bekendste Afrikaanse woordeboeke as ’n kardinale onderdeel van die betekenisbeskywing van die woord voor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">In die ontwikkeling van ’n kollektiewe ideologiese bewussyn sou die Afrikaanse taal egter die bindingskrag wees vir die manifestasie daarvan in ’n nasionale bewussyn wat as Afrikanernasionalisme bekend sou staan. Afrikaans sou die gemene deler word op grond waarvan bepaalde groepervaringe en groepemosies ideologies saamgetrek sou word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Oor die konsep ‘Afrikanernasionalisme’ kan ek ongelukkig ook nie hier aandag skenk nie. Die ideologiese impak daarvan het egter in ’n groot mate die kategoriestatus van die konsep ‘Afrikaner’ help bepaal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die </span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">kategorie</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span><b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">‘Afrikaner’</span></b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die konsep ‘Afrikaans’, onder andere vanweë die ontkenning van sy outonome status as taal, is aanvanklik nie heg met die konsep ‘Afrikaner’ verbind nie. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die konseptuele voedingsbron sou later veral in twee afgeleide konsepte lê, geleksikaliseer as <i>Afrikanerskap</i> en <i>Afrikanerdom</i> – met noodwendige inperking van die verwysingspektrum. Die </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">konsep ‘Afrikanerskap’ het op grond van ideologiese redes sodanig ontwikkel dat dit later as kriterium van insluiting tot of uitsluiting van die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’ gedien het. Dit hou verband met konseptuele verryking van die begrip ‘Afrikanerskap’, en by implikasie die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’, deur die ontwikkeling van ’n gepaardgaande kulturele ‘script’ – </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">‘de culturele waarden en normen voor een of ander aspect of fragment van het gedrag van de mens in een bepaalde cultuur’ – volgens Dirven & Verspoor. Die huidige besinning oor Afrikaneridentiteit het grootliks te make met die begripsinhoude van die woorde <i>Afrikanerdom</i> en <i>Afrikanerskap</i>, maar verál laasgenoemde, omdat dit as identiteitskriterium vir kategorielidmaatskap gegeld het. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die ‘</span></b><b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’</span></b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Op grond van die betekenisskakerings van die woordafleidings <i>Afrikanerskap</i> en <i>Afrikanerdom</i> – en die rol wat Afrikanernasionalisme in die konseptuele verryking daarvan gespeel het – omvat die kategorie waarna die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> tans verwys, ’n ryk konseptuele inhoud. Desondanks word die betekenisse van hierdie woordafleidings nie in die standaard- verklarende woordeboeke beskryf nie. Om die konseptuele inhoud van die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> dus te deurgrond, moet ontledings van die woordeboekdefinisies daarvan, gepáárd met uitsprake en beskouings oor die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’ en sy afgeleide kategorieë in oorweging geneem word. Dit impliseer dat ook kennis geneem word van geïntegreerde kulturele ‘scripts’ wat die betrokke kategorieë konseptueel verryk het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Om van enige kategorie betekenissin te maak, word ’n prototipe van die kategorie geïdentifiseer op grond waarvan lede van die kategorie herken word – soos vroeër aangedui.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b>Die meeste prototipebeskouings</b> verreken die <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">prototipe-element</span></b> as kriterium vir kategorisering. Op grond van sy dinamiese aard is die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’ ’n hoogs gekompliseerde kategorie en kan geen enkele individu op enige stadium as ’n prototipe-element van die kategorie beskou word nie. Sekere groepe Afrikaners het nogtans die kategorie op grond van hulle respektiewelike groepidentiteite in hierdie opsig konseptueel versterk. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die prototipe-Afrikaner is dus ’n <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">abstraksie</span></b>, en hierdie abstraksie berus per definisie op prototipiese eienskappe van die kategorie wat vanuit verskeie gesigspunte geabstraheer word, soos byvoorbeeld vanuit die gesigspunte van die onderskeie ‘homogene’ groepe, maar ook vanuit die gesigspunte van meer heterogene groeperinge. Dit is dus noodsaaklik om naas die prototipiese element prototipiese eienskappe van die kategorie te onderskei. Alhoewel die konseptuele inhoude van die woorde <i>Afrikanerdom</i> en <i>Afrikanerskap</i> heg met mekaar verweef is, het die ontwikkeling van die kategorie ‘Afrikanerdom’ veral saamgehang met die abstrahering van prototipiese elemente, terwyl die kategorie ‘Afrikanerskap’ die abstraksie van prototipiese eienskappe verteenwoordig het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Prototipiese eienskappe vorm saam ’n gestalt. Sodanige prototipegestalt stel ons in staat om die konsep metafories of andersins op ander ervaringsdomeine (ook subdomeine) wat minder prototipies kan wees, toe te pas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Woordeboekdefinisies</span></b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"> sou ’n logiese vertrekpunt wees om die prototipiese eienskappe van ’n bepaalde kategorie te agterhaal. Woordeboekdefinisies van die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> is egter om verskeie redes ontoereikend ten opsigte van die betekenisbeskrywing ter onderskeiding van die prototipegestalt van die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">’n <b><u>Eerste rede</u></b> daarvoor lê by die leksikale definisie se ambivalente aard. Om ’n prototipeparadigma te omskryf, word vereis dat konseptuele verryking van die definisie noodwendig verwysingsinperking teweegbring. Om egter die hele kategorie se verwysingspektrum in die betekenisbeskrywing te ondervang, moet die onderhawige definisie konseptueel ingeperk word, wat meebring dat die definisie ’n skematisering word – in die sin waarin Langacker dit onderskei van die prototipebeskrywing as “an abstract characterization that is fully compatible with all the members of the category it defines (so membership is not a matter of degree); it is an integrated structure that embodies the commonality of its members”. Iewers op die kontinuum vergestalt die leksikale definisie gewoonlik ’n soort middeweg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">’n <b><u>Tweede leemte</u></b> van die woordeboekdefinisie is in die onderhawige geval te vind in die feit dat in die geval van ’n komplekse kategorie soos ‘Afrikaner’ nie al die beheersende punte waaruit die kategorie beoordeel kan word, ondervang word nie – en dat dit selfs onder die gunstigste omstandighede moeilik is om ’n eie beheersendepuntbeskrywing te ontduik. MacLaury wys byvoorbeeld daarop dat die mate waarin ’n prototipe óf ’n gemiddelde lid, óf ’n toonbeeld (volmaakte lid) van die kategorie kan wees, saamhang met die gesigs- of beheersende punt waaruit die kategoriseerder beoordeel. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Vroeër is gewys op die eertydse wisselende benoemings ten opsigte van die kategorie ‘Afrikaans’, byvoorbeeld ‘Kaaps-Hollands’, ‘Plat-Hollands’, ensovoorts. Hierdie benoemings is sprekend van verskillende beheersende punte waaruit die betrokke konsep beoordeel is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Word Nederlandse en Afrikaanse woordeboeke se leksikale definisies van die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> vergelyk, word dit duidelik dat die betekenisbeskrywings twee baie duidelik onderskeibare beheersende punte vergestalt. Die keuse van definiërende eienskappe (of die weglating van bepaalde eienskappe) in verskillende woordeboekdefinisies se betekenisbeskrywings van die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> is opvallend in hierdie verband. Die Nederlandse definisies handhaaf oor die algemeen etnisiteit en lokaliteit as gemene delers, aangevul deur verskillende gesigspunte ten opsigte van die Afrikaner se herkoms. Die beskrywings “Europeeschen oorsprong” en “Boeren-afkomst” in die Nederlandse definisies is onderskeidelik duidelike voorbeelde van die uitbreiding en inperking van die kategorie, terwyl die verswyging van Afrikaans as ’n Afrikaner-eienskap die kategoriegrense noodwendig wyer span. Dit is dus ’n duidelike poging tot skematisering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Vanuit ’n heel ander beheersende punt – vanúit die betrokke kategorie – benadruk die definisies in die Afrikaanse woordeboeke, byvoorbeeld in<i> </i>die <i>Verklarende handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse taal</i>, Afrikaans as moedertaal van die Afrikaner, terwyl etnisiteit en die eksplisiete verwysing na ’n bepaalde herkoms verswyg word. Alhoewel die kategoriegrense deur die vermelding van Afrikaans nouer getrek word, bly hierdie definisies steeds skematiserings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Uiteraard kompliseer graadeienskappe die konseptuele aard van ’n kategorie, soos in die geval van ‘Afrikaner’. As <b><u>derde leemte</u></b> in woordeboekdefinisies kan dus genoem word dat dit nie die graadeienskappe van die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’, waaruit die ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’ ontwikkel het, verteenwoordig nie – eienskappe wat nou saamhang met die beoordeling vanuit verskillende uiteenlopende beheersende punte (byvoorbeeld die gesigspunt van Afrikanernasionalisme). Binne die vorige Suid-Afrikaanse politieke bestel is Afrikaners onder andere na aanleiding van hulle graad van Afrikanerskap gegradeer op ’n kontinuum wat gestrek het van “verkramp” tot “verlig”, en op die tipiese ideologiese spektrum is “regse” en “linkse” Afrikaners onderskei, afgesien van tiperings soos “liberale” en “konserwatiewe” Afrikaners; en so kan voortgegaan word met die opnoem van “subkategorieë”, wat eintlik benoemings is van afsonderlike prototipeparadigmas op grond van verskuiwings van die beheersende punt binne of buite die kategorie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">As abstraksie moet die ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’ konseptuele sin maak van die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’, moet dit taalgebruikers in staat stel om die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> te verstaan. Soos aangetoon, lei beoordeling vanuit uiteenlopende beheersende punte daartoe dat verskillende bundels eienskappe geabstraheer word op grond waarvan die betrokke kategorie beskryf en verklaar word. Die status van die afsonderlike eienskapbundels word binne hierdie betoog prototipipeparadigmas genoem, op grond van hulle geobjektiveerde konseptuele ervaring vanuit verskillende beheersende punte, maar ook op grond van die feit dat hulle afsonderlik nie dié ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’ verteenwoordig nie. Kollektief word hulle konseptueel versmelt in die abstraksie ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’, maar hulle stel weer die ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’ (as abstraksie) in staat om voedingsbron te wees vir die abstrahering van nuwe paradigmas – in die mate waarin die besondere paradigmas ’n bepaalde verwysingspektrum of konseptuele kompleksiteit verteenwoordig. Die vermelde woordeboekdefinisies illustreer dat vanuit die ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’ beperkte paradigmas geabstraheer kan word om die verwysingspektrum te vergroot. Die ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’ maak egter ook daarvoor voorsiening dat op grond van ’n bepaalde geobjektiveerde ervaring van ’n geselekteerde eienskapbundel die etiket <i>Afrikaner</i> ook ander persepsies of ervarings van die kategorie kan ondervang, byvoorbeeld die Afrikanerkarikatuur, ’n paradigma wat konseptueel sodanig verskraal is dat dit lei tot stereotipering. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Nieteenstaande die feit dat die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’ nie ’n enkele prototipe-element op enige gegewe tydstip gehad het nie, het in die ontwikkeling van die betrokke kategorie Afrikanereksponente as “goeie” voorbeelde (in teenstelling met die tipiese prototipestrukturering van “beste” voorbeelde) gedien ter konseptuele verryking van die kategorie as sodanig, en dus noodwendig vir die daarstelling van prototipeparadigmas – en uiteindelik die abstraksie ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’. Sodanige gestalt sou egter weinig hoop op kognitiewe aanraking en gevolglike bindingskrag gehad het indien dit nie ook konseptueel gevoed is deur wat Taylor “folk definitions” noem nie. In hierdie verband noem Taylor dat binne dieselfde taalgebruiker alternatiewe voorstellings van dieselfde kategorie saam kan bestaan: een gebaseer op ’n prototipe en die ander op ’n skema.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Eersgenoemde staan bekend as ’n “folk category” (of natuurlike kategorie) terwyl laasgenoemde ’n “expert category” genoem word. Binne die konteks van hierdie betoog word Taylor se “prototipe” gelyk gestel aan “Afrikanereksponente”, terwyl “expert category” nie net na woordeboekdefinisies verwys nie, maar ook na die geobjektiveerde besinning oor en ervaring van Afrikanerskap (as kulturele “script”) en die bewustelike beoordeling van elemente van die betrokke kategorie in ooreenstemming met die abstraksie ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’. Hieruit het ’n dominante prototipeparadigma ontwikkel wat konseptueel ’n eie kategoriestatus verkry het, naamlik ‘Afrikanerskap’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Besinning oor Afrikaneridentiteit is nie ’n nuwe verskynsel nie. Die huidige </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">debat handel egter primêr oor die konseptuele inhoud van die bogenoemde mees dominante prototipeparadigma (eienskapbundel), wat dermate konseptueel ontwikkel het dat dit geleksikaliseer is as <i>Afrikanerskap</i>. Konseptueel is dit ’n natuurlike verskynsel omdat </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">prototipes rekursief funksioneer en dus nuwe kategorieë tot gevolg het: “prototypicality is itself a prototype category”, volgens Taylor, in navolging van Geeraerts. Die konsepte ‘Afrikanerdom’ en ‘Afrikanerskap’ is voorbeelde van sodanige kategorie-uitbreiding op grond van prototipeparadigmas wat inherent so sterk ontwikkel het dat die abstraksie ‘Afrikaner-prototipegestalt’ te ruim voorsiening sou maak vir hulle eksklusiewe en direktiewe aard. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hierdie konsepte het egter ’n ooreenstemmende konseptuele roete as die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’ geloop. Verskillende groeperinge Afrikaners, byvoorbeeld uit sowel die “verkrampte” as die “verligte” dampkring, kon op Afrikanerskap aanspraak maak. In die lig van die voorgaande bespreking volg dit dat sodanige aansprake gebaseer was op bepaalde onderskeidende prototipeparadigmas wat elke groepering uit die ‘Afrikanerskapgestalt’ sou objektiveer, ook ter versterking van die ‘script’-dimensie van die betrokke paradigma. In hierdie opsig het die intensiteitsverskil van direktiewe kragte in die onderskeie groeperings ter verdere onderskeiding van prototipeparadigmas gedien. Vanuit ’n meer “verkrampte” beheersende punt was die kategorie ‘Afrikanerskap’ se kategoriegrense deur die dwang van eksklusiwiteit minder vloeibaar. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die Afrikanerdebat is dus eintlik ’n illustrasie van ’n geobjektiveerde belewenis van die </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">dominante prototipeparadigma van die kategorie ‘Afrikaner’, by implikasie die afgeleide kategorie ‘Afrikanerskap’.</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Ek vertrou dat ek met hierdie uiteensetting die diversiteit van die konsep ‘Afrikaner’ kon belig. Vervolgens vestig ek die aandag op ’n konsep wat ’n nog komplekser diversiteit impliseer – soos reeds vermeld: identiteit binne diversiteit, vergestalt in die woord <i>Afrikaan</i> (“<i>African</i>”). Die bespreking daarvan geskied an die hand van </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">die <i>I am an African</i>-toespraak van die toenmalige Adjunkpresident Thabo Mbeki op 8 Mei 1996, tydens die aanvaarding van die Grondwet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die reënboognasie</span></b><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Voor 1994 het </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">die</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"> apartheidsideologie rigiede grense binne die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap gevestig en in stand gehou. Die nuwe politieke orde, gepaard met ’n nuwe grondwet, sou hierdie ideologies-gefundeerde kategorieë ophef. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Alhoewel die Grondwet nasiewording onderskryf, maak dit ook op verskillende vlakke voorsiening vir diversiteit. Die “reënboognasie”-metafoor ondervang hierdie oënskynlike teenstrydigheid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die voorgenoemde <i>I am an African</i>-toespraak van die toenmalige Adjunkpresident Thabo Mbeki op 8 Mei 1996, tydens die aanvaarding van die Grondwet, kan onder andere gelees word as ’n poging om die gedagte van ’n “reënboognasie” te stimuleer. Die toespraak sentreer in die “metafoor” <i>I am an African</i>. Verskeie taalkundige strategieë ondersteun die krag van die spesifieke “metafoor”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die metafoorstatus van die frase <i>I am an African</i> word in hierdie bespreking onder die loep neem. Die fokus val op die konseptuele uitbreiding van die metafoordomeinbegrippe (“I” en “African”) as resultaat van verskeie kontekstuele veranderlikes, onder andere plasing, frekwensie en konseptuele versmelting. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Binne </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">die betrokke konteks staan die eerstepersoonsvoornaamwoord <i>ek</i> (“I”) as gevolg van sy “ongewone” kollektiewe verwysing egter ook in ’n besondere verhouding tot sy meervoudsvorm <i>ons</i> (“we”). Daarom is dit nodig om ook statisties na die relatiewe voornaamwoord-swaartepunte binne die betoog te verwys, alhoewel die implikasies daarvan nie in hierdie ontleding volledig aandag sal kry nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die kontekstuele gebruik van die voornaamwoordkategorieë <i>ek</i> en <i>ons</i><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Struktuur van die Mbeki-toespraak</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die Mbeki-toespraak bevat 2 042 woorde, saamgevoeg in drie-en-sestig paragrawe. Vir die daarstelling van ’n statistiese beeld van die gebruikstendens van die eerstepersoonsvoornaamwoord in die enkelvoud en meervoud word die toespraak in vyf eweredige dele verdeel. Vir die doel van die ontleding word die onderwerp-, voorwerp- en possessiewe gebruike van elke kategorie saam gegroepeer. Die grafiek in Figuur 2 stel die ontleding voor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIF2Z3NXENrr5sUCOPxhNgXdz2gDHhEXS41sYUcALw51tcRTNmkP2d55Yk2oIRH-G43zCSZ5_kUWkCwkfWfaXwjIcqhf67MvPpVa197sz3vp1UbGz965lbvidJdEeqNFjwg0Fo6tToZUxh/s1600/Mbeki-grafiek.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="358" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIF2Z3NXENrr5sUCOPxhNgXdz2gDHhEXS41sYUcALw51tcRTNmkP2d55Yk2oIRH-G43zCSZ5_kUWkCwkfWfaXwjIcqhf67MvPpVa197sz3vp1UbGz965lbvidJdEeqNFjwg0Fo6tToZUxh/s640/Mbeki-grafiek.JPG" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die gebruiksfrekwensie van die eerstepersoonsvoornaamwoord in die meervoud mag ietwat misleidend wees indien nie in ag geneem word dat die possessiewe <i>ons</i> (“our”) elf van die vyftien voorkomste verteenwoordig nie. Ten opsigte hiervan moet egter genoem word dat die possessiewe <i>ons</i> (“our”) as verwysingspunt optree vir die denkroete na die konseptuele doelwit: die naamwoorde binne die betrokke naamwoordstukke. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Vergelyk byvoorbeeld die volgende naamwoordstukke uit die toespraak: “our native land” (vier keer); “our frosts”; “our latter-day snows”; “our sunshine”; “our day”; “our country”; “our freedom and dependence”; “our memories”.</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die tendensgrafiek dui onteenseglik op ’n opwaartse neiging ten opsigte van die gebruik van die eerstepersoonsvoornaamwoord in die meervoud, terwyl die gebruik van die eerstepersoonsvoornaamwoord in die enkelvoud afwaarts neig. Dit hou duidelik verband met Mbeki se primêre ideologiese doelwit: verskillende groepidentiteite, gewoonlik aangedui deur die voornaamwoorde <i>ons</i> (“we”) en <i>hulle</i> (“they”), behoort verenig te word. En dit hou direk verband met die konseptuele lading van <i>ek</i> (“I”) in die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i>. Die gebruiksfrekwensie van variante van die eerste persoon meervoud in die slotparagraaf van die toespraak onderskryf by implikasie die genoemde gekontekstualiseerde konseptuele lading; vergelyk:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">(1) “</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Whoever <i>we</i> may be, whatever <i>our</i> immediate interest, however much <i>we</i><b> </b>carry baggage from our past, however much <i>we</i> have been caught by the fashion of cynicism and loss of faith in the capacity of the people, let <i>us</i> err today and say – nothing can stop <i>us</i> now!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die eksplisiete gebruik van die eerstepersoonsvoornaamwoord in die meervoud volg dus eintlik uit die ongewone konseptuele manipulasie van die eerstepersoonsvoornaamwoord in die enkelvoud, gemanifesteer in die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i>. Die genoemde konseptuele manipulasie hou direk verband met bepaalde verskuiwings van die beheersende punt deur die spreker, vergestalt in die verwysingsvariasies van <i>ek</i> (“I”).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Verskuiwing van die beheersende punt deur voornaamwoordgebruik</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die voornaamwoord <i>ek</i> (“I”) het ’n deurslaggewende konseptuele funksie in die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i> – soos reeds vermeld. Deur die gebruik daarvan eksploiteer Mbeki sy deiktiese rol: die voornaamwoord <i>ek</i> (“I”) dui op die taalhandelingsrol en die identiteit van die spreker. In hierdie hoedanigheid dien dit as implisiete kognitiewe verwysingspunt met die doel om kognitiewe aanraking (“mental contact”) met die aangesprokene(s) te bewerkstellig.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die spreker maak doelbewus van die voornaamwoord <i>ek</i> (“I”) gebruik om verskuiwings ten opsigte van verskillende beheersende punte te bewerkstellig. Binne ’n multikulturele en multi-etniese samelewing vereenwelwig hy hom baie intiem met verskillende subgroepe deur die gebruik van die voornaamwoord <i>ek</i> (“I”); vergelyk die volgende voorbeelde: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">(2) “I owe me being to the Khoi and San …”; “I am formed of the migrant who left Europe …”; “I am the grandchild of the warrior men and women …”; “I am the grandchild who lays fresh flowers on the Boer graves of St Helena …”; “I come of those who were transported from India and China …”; ens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Op grond van Mbeki se vereenselwigingstrategie moet die betrokke aangesprokenes die nodige konseptuele aanpassings maak. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die vereenselwiging kulmineer in sy eie verduideliking daarvan: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">(3) “Being part of all these people, and in the knowledge that none dare contest that assertion, I shall claim that – I am an African!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Deur die bewerkstelliging van konseptuele koherensie, soos in die voorgaande uiteensetting beskryf, kan hy nou die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i> metafories benut om sy onderliggende kommunikasiedoelwitte te verrryk en te versterk. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;"> metafoorstatus van <i>I am an African</i></span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Kognitiewe beskouing van die metafoor</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Taylor wys daarop dat die kognitiewe benadering tot die metafoor reeds sy beslag gekry het in Black se interaksieteorie oor die metafoor in 1962. Ek kon ongelukkig nie in hierdie betoog daaraan aandagskenk nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die kognitiewe benadering tot die metafoor sluit nou by die interaksiebeskouing van Black aan, alhoewel bepaalde terme binne die twee benaderings verskillende verwysingsmoontlikhede het, byvoorbeeld die begrip “raam”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Binne die kognitiewe beskouing bied die begrip “konseptuele metafoor”<i> </i>’n funksionele beskrywingsraam vir die metafoor. Die metafoor word hiervolgens beoordeel as ’n konseptuele karteringsproses: die betekenisstruktuur van die brondomein word op ’n ander ervaringsdomein toegepas – die doelwitdomein.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die kognitiewe struktuur van ’n metafoor berus verder op die beginsel van konseptuele versmelting, “a general cognitive process … that operates over mental spaces as inputs”, volgens vergelyk Fauconnier & Turner. Oakley wys daarop dat konseptuele versmelting sodanig werk dat dit agtergrondaannames in ooreenstemmende taalvorme neerslag laat vind. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hy beskryf die proses soos volg: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">“Working over an array of mental spaces – online conceptual packets built up as we think, talk, and understand – blending occurs when two or more <i>input spaces</i> in cooperation with a <i>generic space</i> project <i>partial structure</i> into a fourth space known as the <i>blend</i>. The blend inherits partial structure from each input space and develops its own <i>emergent structure</i>.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Gevolglik </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">word</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"> die metafoor teen die agtergrond van die konseptuele versmelting verstaan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;">Alhoewel </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">verskeie</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14pt;"> kontekstuele faktore die metafoorstatus van die uitdrukking </span><i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">I am an African</span></i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"> kan bepaal, word die aandag op die volgende gevestig: betekenismanipulasie (van <i>ek</i>) deur perspektiefverskuiwing, eksploitasie van die generiese ruimte, die aard en rigting van metaforiese kartering, en die aard en kontekstuele rol van die resulterende konseptuele versmeltings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i></span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Buite konteks is die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i> inderdaad géén metafoor nie!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Lyons wys daarop dat soortgelyke frases (“X is Y”) semanties drieledig vertolk kan word: om die identifikasie van een entiteit met ’n ander aan te dui (byvoorbeeld “I am Mbeki”); ter aanduiding van klaslidmaatskap (byvoorbeeld “I am a member of Parliament”); of om klasinsluiting te veronderstel (byvoorbeeld “We are Africans”). Mbeki kon inderdaad die klasinsluitende nie-metaforiese uitdrukking “We are Africans” gebruik het omdat dít juis is waarop hy met die toespraak mik – soos vergestalt in die frekwensietendensgrafieke van <i>ek</i> en <i>ons</i> respektiewelik (vergelyk Figuur 2). Daardeur sou hy egter die potensiële kommunikatiewe krag van die “metafoor” ingeboet het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hy verkies egter om die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i> te gebruik. Hierdeur skep hy ’n metafoorraam waarin <i>African</i> as die fokale woord betekenisuitbreiding ondergaan – wat van die aangesprokene vereis om sowel die “ou” as “nuwe” betekenis van <i>African</i> met mekaar te versoen om die metafoor ten volle te kan begryp. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Teen die agtergrond van sy betekenismanipulasie van die voornaamwoord <i>ek</i> skep Mbeki egter deur hierdie frase vir die betrokke konteks ’n ryk, komplekse en kragtige metafoor wat teenoorgesteld ’n dieperliggende kartering vanaf <i>ek</i> na <i>African</i> veronderstel – juis omdat die gekontekstualiseerde <i>ek</i>-ervaring aan die hart van die betrokke metafoor lê.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">As metafoor funksioneer<i> I am an African</i> dus op meer as een vlak. ’n Kognitiewe ontleding van dié gekontekstualiseerde metafoor onthul die betekenisintensie “We are Africans” – wat minstens drie onderliggende geïntegreerde metafoorvlakke veronderstel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Op ’n eerste vlak verenig die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i> ’n hele konstellasie metafore wat die brondomein <i>ek</i> onderlê. Op grond van sy konseptuele manipulasie van die eeerste persoon enkelvoud skep hy metafore wat die fokale kategorie <i>African</i> subkategoriseer maar ook verenig: verskillende groepidentiteite word sistematies (konseptueel) op ’n bepaalde ego-identiteit gekarteer; anders gestel: “understanding and experiencing one kind of thing or experience in terms of another”, volgens Lakoff en Johnson. Enkele van die subkategorië word vervolgens genoem. By elkeen volg die relevante aanhaling uit die toespraak:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">A: Ek is ’n Khoi en San (“I owe me being to the Khoi and San …”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">B: Ek is ’n wit immigrant (“I am formed of the migrant who left Europe …”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">C: Ek is ’n inheemse (van Afrika) (“I am the grandchild of the warrior men and women …”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">D: Ek is ’n Boer (“I am the grandchild who lays fresh flowers on the Boer graves of St Helena …”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">E: Ek is ’n Suid-Afrikaanse Indiër/Sjinees (“I come of those who were transported from India and China …”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">F: Ek is ’n voormalige onderdrukte (“I am born of a people who would not tolerate oppression.”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Ensovoorts.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hy definieer die subkategorieë van <i>African</i> baie versigtig deur die gebruik van implisiete metafore soos “I am formed …”, “I come of those …”, “I have seen …”, “I am born of …”, ensovoorts – en vermy dus in hierdie gevalle die eksplisiete gebruik van die “I am X”-frase. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Hierdeur verenig hy ’n konseptuele konstellasie kategorieë wat uiteindelik die metafoor <i>I am an African</i> onderlê – ondervang deur sy eie uitspraak: “Being part of all these people, and in the knowledge that none dare contest that assertion, I shall claim that – I am an African!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die kommunikatiewe krag van hierdie uitdrukking (metafoor) berus egter by die voorafgaande beheersendepuntverskuiwings wat bewerkstellig is deur die gebruik van die eerste persoon enkelvoud. Deur identiteitstransformasies word hy dus in staat gestel om verskillende groepsidentiteite konseptueel binne te dring. Op grond hiervan word verskillende aangesprokenes gedring om perspektief- en gesigspuntverskuiwings ter uitbreiding van hulle kategorieë te maak. Kategoriegrense word dus konseptueel opgehef.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Op die tweede vlak ondersteun die metafoor <i>I am an African</i> hierdie perspektief- en gesigspunttransformasies: die saamgestelde identiteit (soos nou verteenwoordig deur die konsep <i>ek</i>) word op die ruimte-afgeleide konsep <i>African</i> (as ruimtelike vereniging) gekarteer. Hieruit volg dat op ’n derde vlak die konsep <i>African</i> op elke individuele groep gekarteer word, soos verteenwoordig deur <i>ek</i> – met die uiteindelike betekenis: “We are Africans”. Maar laasgenoemde uitdrukking is geen metafoor nie, en as sodanig sou dit nie die kommunikatiewe krag van die metafoor hê nie.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: teal; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die effektiwiteit van die metafoor kan dus eerstens toegeskryf word aan die gebruik <i>ek</i> in plaas van <i>ons</i>. Die eerste persoon enkelvoud tree in hierdie gevalle as ’n prominente verwysingspunt op. In sy hoedanigheid as ’n prominente Suid-Afrikaner benut hy die identiteitsonthullende <i>ek</i> as ’n strategiese konseptuele verwysingspunt om telkens verskillende kategorieë te verteenwoordig – om uiteindelik die solidariteit van ’n “ons” te skep.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Verder moet daar gewys word op die aard en rigting van kartering ten opsigte van verskillende ervaringsdomeine. Soos vroeër vermeld, lyk dit met die eerste oogopslag of die konseptuele ervaring van <i>African</i> as invoerruimte 1 dien (die brondomein), terwyl die konseptuele ervaring van <i>ek</i> (“I”) as invoerruimte 2 (die doeldomein) dien. Hierdie invoerruimtes word wel betrek, maar omgekeerd – en op ’n intermediêre vlak in die konseptuele ontwikkeling van die betrokke metafoor in die tersaaklike konteks. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Op die eerste kognitiewe ontwikkelingsvlak word die konseptuele integrasie van verskillende groepidentiteite gekarteer op die ego-identiteit van die spreker. Die toespraakkonteks dien as ’n soort kolligmeganisme op grond waarvan aspekte uit die generiese ruimte (naamlik kategorie, rol en identiteit) konseptueel uitgehef word. Gevolglik het dit ’n gedeelde raamstruktuur met die invoerruimtes gemeen: verskillende Afrika-groepidentiteite (kategorieë) word op grond van bepaalde rolvereistes verenig in ’n deiktiese identiteit – die versmelte konseptuele ruimte. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">Fauconnier & Turner merk tereg op: “Once the blend is established, we can operate cognitively within that space, which allows us to manipulate the various events as an integrated unit.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Daarom </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">kan</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"> dit op die tweede kognitiewe ontwikkelingsvlak as invoerruimte dien. Op hierdie vlak tree die konseptuele ervaring van die versmelte ruimte (“blend”) van die eerste vlak dus as invoerruimte 1 op – op grond waarvan ’n saamgestelde deiktiese identiteit op ’n verenigde Afrika-identiteit gekarteer word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die konseptuele ervaring van die versmelte ruimte van vlak twee (<i>African</i> as kolletiewe ervaring van individuele groepidentiteite) tree op kognitiewe ontwikkelingsvlak drie as invoerruimte op vir kartering op individuele groepidentiteite. Hieruit ontwikkel die versmelte konseptuele ervaring: “We are Africans”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Gevolgtrekking</span></b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Die uitdrukking <i>I am an African</i> se metafoorstatus lê nie op die oppervlak nie. Die metafoorstatus van die uitdrukking word bepaal deur die betekenis- en verwysingsmanipulasie van die eerste persoon enkelvoud – sodanig dat dit onderliggend as katalisator optree om konseptuele identiteitservarings te wysig en te verenig in die kollektiewe eerste persoon meervoud <i>ons</i> (“we”).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14pt;">Samevatting<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Kognitiewe linguistiek bied ’n beskrywingsmodel van die verhouding wat daar bestaan tussen taal en die menslike waarneming van die wêreld waarin hy ruimtelik funksioneer; kortom: kognitiewe linguistiek lê verbande tussen taal en kognisie. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">In die voorgaande uiteensetting het ek probeer aantoon hoedat hierdie beskrywingsmodel ons in staat stel om bepaalde insigte te verifieer (of tot bepaalde insigte te kom) ten opsigte van die taalbelewenis – en dus ook ons kognitiewe belewenis – van twee identiteitskwessies: identiteitskwessies wat in die diverse Suid-Afrika nog van fundamentele belang kan wees.</span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-18891616836909058622016-11-25T12:27:00.003+02:002016-11-25T15:38:36.837+02:00’n Oorlog teen metafore?<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0cm; text-align: center;">
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<b style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></b></div>
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<b style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;">’n Oorlog teen metafore?</b><a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">[1]</span></b></span></span></a></div>
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<span style="text-align: right;"><span style="font-size: large;">Willem Botha</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">We do not realize what tremendous power the structure of a habitual language has. … (I)t enslaves us through the mechanism of semantic reactions and … the structure which a language exhibits, and impresses on us unconsciously, is automatically projected upon the world around us</span></i><span lang="EN-GB"> (Alfred Korzybski, 1879 – 1950)<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">[2]</span></span></span></a>.</span></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Because of its speech act structure language shapes war. This phenomenon becomes very clear when one examines the immediate circumstances prior to military action against <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In this regard resolution 1441, which put certain restrictions on <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region> with regard to weapons of mass destruction, acted as an instigator of disagreement – not only revealed by language, but also conveyed by the force structure of language. This article examines different speech acts related to resolution 1441 – but also to the resulting proposed resolution which would have enabled the USA and Britain (with their allies) to take military action within the preconditions of the Security Council of the United Nations. As an ultimatum to Saddam Hussein it became a secondary force in relation to primary language forces dividing members of the Security Council, as well as other potential role players within the wider context of an evolving war. The exploitation of the ontological metaphorical status of the concepts ‘terrorist’, ‘terror’ and ‘terrorism’ is also scrutinized. <o:p></o:p></span></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Ongeveer ’n week na die 11 September-terreuraanvalle in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state> maak die Britse eerste minister, mnr. Tony Blair, die volgende dramatiese stelling – ’n stelling wat, eienaardig genoeg, min prominensie geniet het: “Whatever the technical and legal issues about a declaration of war, the fact is that we are at war with terrorism.” <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Vroeg in die jaar 2003, na ’n bewering van mnr. Mohamed Al Baradei, hoof van die internasionale atoom-energiekorporasie, dat Noord-Korea die VN se verbod op kernwapenprogramme oortree en voor die VN-veiligheidsraad gedaag sal word, reageer president Kim Jong Il (van Noord-Korea) daarop deur te sê dat die VN se optrede op ’n oorlogsverklaring neerkom.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">In dieselfde tydperk, nadat die wapeninspekteurs ’n Al-Samoed-missiel met ’n reikafstand van baie meer as 150 km (die reikafstand wat ’n VN-resolusie Irak toelaat) in Irak ontdek het, kondig die Withuis-woordvoerder, mnr. Ari Fleischer, aan dat die VSA en Brittanje reeds die volgende week ’n nuwe resolusie <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> indien waarin die VN gevra word om militêre optrede goed te keur. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Bogenoemde oorsig van bepaalde handelinge deur taal illustreer by implikasie die intrinsieke rol wat taal in die aanloop tot, maar uiteindelik ook ín enige reële oorlog speel. Dit maak die taalarsenaal net so ’n deel van oorlog soos wat enige veldslag, opmars, lugaanval, bombardement en verwante sake deel van ’n werklike oorlog is. Per definisie het oorlog te doen met georganiseerde kragte wat deur bepaalde groepe teenoor mekaar gestel word met die oog op strukturele verwoesting en die neem van menselewens. </span><span lang="NL">Die voorgenoemde uitsprake sluit nou aan by sodanige kragdimensie van oorlog, maar in hulle hoedanigheid as taaldade met ’n bepaalde seggingskrag ten opsigte van die werklikheid waarin dit gebruik word en waarna dit verwys. </span><span lang="EN-GB">In die bespreking wat volg, sal die taalkrag van sodanige uitinge onder die loep geneem word. Ten slotte word die eksploitasie van die metafoor teen die agtergrond van die krag van taal in oënskou geneem.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Dat taal meer doen as net die oordrag van bepaalde inligting, word bevestig deur Hayakawa (1962:vii) se formulering van die intieme verhouding wat daar tussen taal, denke en gedrag bestaan: “between <i>how we talk</i>, therefore <i>how we think</i>, and therefore <i>how we act</i>.” </span><span lang="NL">Dit hou verband met die omwenteling wat die verskyning van J.L. Austin se boek <i>How to do things with words</i> in 1962 gebring het ten opsigte van opvattings oor betekenis en die krag van taaluitinge. Austin se beskouing kom daarop neer dat alle taaluitinge eintlik as taalhandelinge beskou moet word – dat die aard van die uiting en die konteks waarin dit gebruik word uiteindelik die relatiewe taalkrag daarvan sal bepaal. Breedweg sou enige taaluiting deur een of meer van die volgende handelingskategorieë ondervang kan word: stellings, evaluerings, ekspressiewe (houdingshandelinge), direktiewe, gesagsuitinge en verbintenisse. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Daar moet verder op gelet word dat elke taalhandeling ’n bepaalde effek op die aangesprokene(s) het – dit wil sê krag op die aangsprokene(s) uitoefen – en dat sodanige effek weer instigator is van verdere taal- of ander handelinge. Die doel met enige taalhandeling is inderdaad om ’n bepaalde uitwerking te hê in ooreenstemming met die bedoeling van die spreker(s). In sy voorlegging op 5 Februarie 2003 aan die VN-veiligheidsraad, waarin hy optrede teenoor Irak aanmoedig, illustreer generaal Colin Powell die bedoeling met resolusie 1441 onomwonde met die volgende woorde: “</span><span lang="EN-GB">The purpose of that resolution was to disarm Iraq of its weapons of mass destruction.”</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Die relatiewe status van die spreker dra by tot die relatiewe krag van die betrokke taalhandeling. In die aanloop tot die konvensionele oorlog teen Irak het verskillende rolspelers opgetree om oor die hele taalhandelingspektrum bepaalde oorlogsdade te stig of teen te staan. Sy status as president van die VSA – die moondheid wat oor die kragtigste oorlogsmasjinerie beskik – bepaal dat George Bush se woorde hoegenaamd nie lig opgeneem kon word nie. Uiteraard is die intrinsieke krag van sy taaluitinge gedelegeer na verteenwoordigende rolspelers, soos ’n Colin Powell, </span><span lang="EN-GB">’n Donald Rumsfeld, Withuiswoordvoerders en andere. </span><span lang="NL">Alhoewel Bush by verskeie geleenthede te kenne gegee het dat die VSA sonder steun vir ’n nuwe resolusie bereid sou wees om eensydig teen Irak op te tree, sou ander rolspelers se talige verbintenis – en die resulterende morele (en militêre?) verbintenis – tot sodanige optrede sy saak versterk. </span><span lang="EN-GB">Daarom was dit vir hom belangrik dat ’n Tony Blair, die VN, Navo en die Europese Unie hulle steun moes uitspréék. Dit het diplomatieke inisiatiewe op verskillende taalhandelingsvlakke meegebring – en taal is waarskynlik een van die belangrikste onderdele van enige diplomatieke handeling. </span><span lang="NL">Anders gestel: diplomasie is ook die taalvergestalting van bepaalde kommunikasiestrategieë – strategieë wat nie altyd positief bejeën word nie: “behendige sluwheid in de omgang” (Van Dale, 2001).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Dit was belangrik vir Bush dat verskillende taalhandelingstrategieë uiteindelik kulmineer in ’n koalisie se gesamentlike “oorlogsverklaring”, alhoewel ’n formele talige verklaring nie ’n voorvereiste vir oorlog is nie. </span><span lang="NL">Brittanje het byvoorbeeld nooit formeel oorlog teen die Falkland-eilande verklaar nie; ook is daar nooit ’n oorlog tussen die VSA en Vietnam verklaar nie. Dat ’n oorlog ook implisiet verklaar kan word as uitvloeisel van ander taalhandelinge, blyk uit die vroeëre verwysing na Noord-Korea se president Kim Jong Il se beskouing dat indien Noord-Korea voor die VN-veiligheidsraad gedaag sou word (natuurlik in taal), dit op ’n oorlogsverklaring sou neerkom. </span><span lang="EN-GB">In Bush se geval sou morele regverdiging vir ’n oorlog deur kollektiewe optrede versterk word, terwyl verdere skade aan die VSA se beeld as internasionale paaiboelie daardeur versag <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> word.</span><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Uit die verskeidenheid taalhandelinge van verskillende rolspelers in die aanloop tot die oorlog teen Irak blyk die kompleksiteit van Bush se aanvanklike (voorlopige) “oorlogsverklaring”<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">[3]</span></span></span></a>. In hierdie opsig was VN-resolusie 1441 die sentrifugale krag. Die taalaard van die genoemde resolusie spreek uit die woordeboekdefinisie van <i>resolusie</i>: “a <i>formal expression</i> of the consensus at a meeting, arrived at after discussion and usually as the result of a vote” (my kursivering). Die krag van sodanige uitdrukking spreek uit ’n verdere betekenisbeskrywing: “a firm decision to do something” (<i>Encarta World English Dictionary</i>). VN-resolusie 1441 (onder andere ’n verbod op die ontwikkeling van missiele wat ’n bepaalde reikafstand oorskry) is ’n duidelike voorbeeld van ’n gesagstaalhandeling. Daarteenoor gee dr. Hans Blix, hoofwapeninspekteur, sy bevindinge nie net in stellingstaalhandelinge weer nie – hy maak ook van evalueringshandelinge gebruik. </span><span lang="NL">Dit is inderdaad hoedat generaal Colin Powell dit interpreteer as een van die motiverings vir sy eie voorlegging aan die VN-veiligheidsraad: “… to support the core <i>assessments</i> made by Dr. Blix ...” </span><span lang="EN-US">(my kursivering).</span><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="NL">Maar die opvolg-konsepresolusie, waarin militêre optrede teen Irak gevra is, is ontkrag deur oorredingstrategieë wat nie die gewenste uitwerking het nie, onder andere die aanbieding van die “waarheid” in stellings en evaluerings.</span><span lang="NL"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Die tweede rede wat die Amerikaanse minister van buitelandse sake, generaal Colin Powell, aangevoer het vir sy voorlegging aan die VN-veiligheidsraad op 5 Februarie 2003, ter motivering van dié verdere resolusie vir militêre optrede teen Irak, getuig daarvan</span><span lang="NL">: </span><span lang="EN-US">“My second purpose today is to provide you with additional information (stellings), to share with you what the United States knows about Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction as well as Iraq’s involvement in terrorism (evaluering), which is also the subject of Resolution 1441 and other earlier resolutions.” </span><span lang="NL">Hier moet in gedagte gehou word dat taalstrategieë dikwels saamhang met die aard, betekenis- en struktuurinhoud van bepaalde taaluitinge. Die taalhandelingskrag van Powell se voortspruitende stellings en evaluerings word gedra deur geïntegreerde stelsinne (struktuur) wat vanuit ’n bepaalde waarheidsbeskouing (ten opsigte van betekenis) op ’n waar-vals-skaal beoordeel kan word. In hierdie opsig was mnr. </span><span lang="EN-US">Tony Blair se ywer vir die daarstelling van die betrokke resolusie natuurlik kontraproduktief met die onthulling dat die inhoud van ’n langverwagte dossier wat die Irak-“waarhede” moes rugsteun, op ou inligting berus het. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Die</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on"><strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">International</span></strong></st1:placename><strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <st1:placename w:st="on">Action</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Center</st1:placetype></span></strong></st1:place></span><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">stel dit onomwonde: “Blair’s ‘dossier’ publicity stunt flops as tide turns against war”</span><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(</span><u><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.iacenter.org/" target="_top"><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">http://www.iacenter.org/</span></a></span></u></strong><strong><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">).</span></strong><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Ten spyte van die verbintenistaalhandelinge deur EU-staatshoofde en Navo ter ondersteuning van VSA-optrede, het ’n antipatie ten opsigte van militêre optrede by die breë publiek regoor die wêreld toegeneem. Dit word duidelik gesuggereer deur van die metafore wat in die media gebruik is, byvoorbeeld “Bush’s push for war” en “Muddy road to war”. Dit kan egter ook toegeskryf word aan die feit dat die emosie van 11 September 2001 aan die afneem en die (emosionele) realiteite van ’n konvensionele oorlog aan die toeneem was. </span><span lang="NL">Houdingshandelinge, gepaard met algemene “war talk” (gebruik van oorlogsmetafore), het nie meer die nodige taalhandelingsvrugte afgewerp nie.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="NL">Op Vrydag 7 Maart 2003 is die krag van taalhandelinge op die spits gedryf tydens ’n debat in die Veiligheidsraad waarin die Britse minister van buitelandse sake, mnr. </span><span lang="EN-GB">Jack Straw, ’n gewysigde resolusie ingedien het wat op ’n ultimatum </span><span lang="EN-GB">aan Irak neergekom het: om te ontwapen of oorlog in die gesig te staar.</span><span lang="NL"> ’n Ultimatum is natuurlik ’n klassieke voorbeeld van ’n direktief: </span><span lang="EN-GB">“</span><span lang="EN-US">f</span><span lang="EN-GB">inal demand:</span><span lang="EN-GB"> a demand accompanied by a threat to inflict some penalty if the demand is not met”</span><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-US">(<i>Encarta World English Dictionary</i>)</span><span lang="EN-GB">. </span><span lang="NL">Tydens die debat wat as “emosioneel” en “dramaties” beskryf is – ’n debat wat volgens sommige kommentators selfs die voortbestaan van die VN in gedrang kon bring – dien mnr. Straw dié resolusie in. Kommentators se beskrywing van sy toespraak as “hartstogtelik” en “emosioneel” illustreer die oorkoepelende ekspressiewe taalhandelingskrag daarvan – en dit herinner aan die taalhandelinge na 11 September 2001, dié soort taalhandelinge waarvan mnr. George Bush hom ook bedien het in sy aanvanklike oproep tot ’n oorlog teen Irak, wat van die Britse kommentators laat opmerk het dat die Britte skepties staan teenoor iemand wat mense met die <i>instinkte</i> van Bush volg. Selfs in sy finale toespraak voor die inval, op 18 Maart 2003, handhaaf hy die terroris-fiksasie: “</span><span lang="EN-GB">Saddam Hussein and his terrorist allies could choose the moment of deadly conflict when they are strongest.”</span><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"><span style="font-size: large;">Die krag van Straw se oorkoepelende houdingshandelinge, wat natuurlik in inhoud grootliks die hele taalhandelingspektrum bestryk het, was verknoop aan die ultimatum aan Irak – maar meer nog. Dit was ook ’n strategie ter oorreding: om nie-permanente lede van die Veiligheidsraad te oortuig om vir die bepaalde resolusie te stem, en lande met ’n vetoreg nie daardie reg te laat gebruik nie. ’n Veto as sodanig is sowel ’n direktief as ’n gesagshandeling, en die gebruik daarvan hef die verbintenis tot ’n bepaalde resolusie op. Dít is waaroor dit uiteindelik gegaan het: die Veiligheidsraad se verbintenis tot optrede! En in teenstelling met die effek wat ander kategorieë taalhandelinge het, naamlik dat die aangesprokenes se toekomstige gedrag daardeur beïnvloed kan word, affekteer ’n verbintenishandeling die toekomstige gedrag van diegene wat sodanige handeling pleeg – en lande soos Frankryk, Rusland en China het nie daarvoor kans gesien nie.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Die voorgestelde konsepresolusie se inherente seggingskrag het ’n netwerk taalhandelinge tot gevolg gehad – taalkragte gerig op oortuiging, teenstand, protes, misleiding, verwyt, meelewing, vrees, konsensus, veroordeling, selfregverdiging, verontskuldiging, en talle ander</span><a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="NL"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB">. Word dié resolusie onder oë geneem, moet opgemerk word dat die taalhandelingskrag daarvan bepaal word deur die magsposisie van die koalisie vir oorlog wat dit voorgestel het, maar ook deur die lede van die VN-veiligheidsraad se magsrolle binne die raad. Alhoewel die uitwerking van ’n aanvaarde resolusie gerig is op optrede teen Hussein, sou ’n aanvaarding van die resolusie – deur ’n meerderheids- of vetostem – ’n ernstige verbintenishandeling vir die voorstellers van die resolusie tot gevolg hê, juis omdat ’n resolusie nié ’n meningsopname weerspieël nie, maar ’n verbintenis is tot die taalkrag daarvan: ’n <i>vir</i>-krag of ’n <i>teen</i>-krag. Dit is dan ook nie vreemd dat die voorstellers na aanduidings van die stemuitslag uiteindelik nie die resolusie tot stemming wou bring nie. Dit het hulle op verskeie vlakke in staat gestel om die minder oorloggerigte resolusie 1441 te eksploiteer ter regverdiging van oorlog.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Met die voorgaande uiteensetting van die middelpuntvliedende krag van taalhandelinge in die aanloop tot ’n oorlog as agtergrond, bly die vraag (waarom die VSA so behep was met ’n oorlog teen Irak) steeds onbeantwoord. Op 24 Oktober 2002 berig die <i><a href="http://www.thedailycamera.com/bdc/" target="_new"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Boulder Daily Camera</span></a></i> (<u><a href="http://www.commondreams.org/"><span style="color: windowtext;">http://www.commondreams.org/</span></a></u>) dat Bush twee redes het vir sodanige oorlog: “The first is that Saddam is determined to acquire nuclear weapons, already has biological and chemical weapons, and may use any of them. The second is that a link exists between the regime in Iraq and the al-Qaida network.”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Bush keer egter self die orde in ’n persverklaring om, uitgereik deur die Withuis op 5 Desember 2002. Die eerste deel van die verklaring bevat frases soos die volgende: “</span><span lang="EN-GB">there’s no bigger issue than to win this war against the terrorists”; “(i)t’s a different kind of war”; “(t)his is a different kind of enemy”; “I cannot imagine what was going through their mind when they hit America”; “(t)hese people are scattered in 60 different countries”; “September 11th, 2001, completely changed the strategic calculations of this country”; en “(t)he battlefield is here”. En dan eers kom die skakel en die verskuiwing van die slagveld: “We’ve got to be wise about how we view the world and make sure that the new arrangements, the new alliances aren’t allowed to develop. An alliance, for example, where a nation that has weapons of mass destruction uses a shadowy terrorist network as a forward army, perhaps encouraging them to attack <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">America</st1:place></st1:country-region> without leaving any fingerprints. … And that’s why I started talking about Iraq and Saddam Hussein.”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Die aanloop is dus ongetwyfeld 11 September 2001. Dít is trouens die motivering wat Bush daarvoor vind. Ten spyte van talle ander motiewe wat deur kommentators voorgehou is, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> die impak wat 11 September op die kollektiewe psige van die Amerikaners gehad het, nie onderskat word nie. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Die laaste gedeelte van die voorgenoemde persverklaring word gewy aan die motivering van optrede teen Irak. Daar word eksplisiet melding gemaak van Saddam Hussein en Irak. Word dit saam gelees met Tony Blair se stelling oor oorlog (</span><span lang="EN-GB">“Whatever the technical and legal issues about a declaration of war, the fact is that we are at war with terrorism.”) en Bush se eie verwysing van die stryd teen terreur (“fighting terror and all forms of terror”), blyk dit dat sowel Bush as Blair oorlog verklaar teen terreur / terroriste / terrorisme. Op grond van hulle status as staatshoofde <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> hulle woorde inderdaad as ’n kategoriese oorlogsverklaring beskou word. Ook die formulering van dié oorlogsverklaring is baie direk.</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Die beginsels en praktyke van terreur, op grond waarvan die woord <i>terrorisme</i> afgelei is, is talryk – en vindingryk, soos wat 11 September 2001 van getuig. Maar om terreur en terrorisme te beveg, kom neer op ’n oorlog teen metafore – want albei hierdie woorde (as substantiewe) se status is dié van ontologiese metafore. As sodanig is hulle begripswerktuie wat ons in staat te stel om verskillende handelinge en idees onder ’n sambreelterm saam te groepeer sodat ons dit begripsmatig en taalmatig in verskillende kontekste <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> hanteer. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Maar hoe voer ’n mens ’n konvensionele oorlog teen ’n abstraksie</span><span lang="EN-US"> sonder om Don Quixote te speel</span><span lang="EN-GB">? Hiervoor bied die eksploitasie van ’n bepaalde dimensie van die metafoor ’n oplossing.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">Omdat die begripsmetafoor ons in staat stel om vanuit konkreter ervarings abstrakter ervarings te beleef, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> ons die begripsroete ook omkeer om bepaalde abstraksies selektief te verkonkretiseer. Sodanig <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> die woord <i>terroris</i> makliker hanteerbaar gemaak word. Alhoewel die terroris dikwels staatloos is – en in ’n sekere sin ook gesigloos is – stel die woord ons in staat om die begripsambreel oop te maak oor wie ons ook al daarvoor geskik mag vind. En dit is presies wat Bush doen met die identifisering van Saddam Hussein: “And that’s why I started talking about <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Saddam Hussein.” Dit moet gesien word teen die agtergrond van die mislukte aanslag teen Osama bin Laden (binne hierdie konteks die prototipe van die begrip ‘terroris’) in Afganistan. Die verkonkretisering van die begrip ‘terroris’ in die persoon van Saddam Hussein stel Bush in staat om die slagveld (in sy woorde: “(t)he battlefield is here”) ook te verskuif na Irak – en sodanige lokaliteit is geskik vir ’n konvensionele oorlog! Dit val byvoorbeeld op hoeveel keer Bush in die genoemde persvrystelling Hussein en Irak eksplisiet noem: nou bestaan daar dus ’n reële antagonis en ’n werklike slagveld. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: large;">In teenstelling met die begrip ‘terroris’ is die begrippe ‘terreur’ (“fighting terror and all forms of terror” – Bush) en ‘terrorisme’ (“we are at war with terrorism” – Blair) nié verkonkretiseerbaar nie. Metaforiese eksploitasie van die woord <i>terroris</i> bied die Bush/Blair-alliansie aan die een kant ’n oplossing vir die probleem van ’n oorlog teen metafore(!), en aan die ander kant die geleentheid tot verhulling van ander motiewe.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Verwysings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Austin, J.L. 1962. <i>How to do things with words</i>. Oxford: Clarendon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Encarta® World English Dictionary</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"> © & (P) </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">1999</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Microsoft Corporation. Developed for Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Hayakawa, S.I. 1962. <i>The use and misuse of langauge</i>. <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greenwich</st1:place></st1:city>: Fawcett.<strong><span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van Dale. 2001. <i>Van Dale Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandshe Taal</i>. Utrecht / Antwerpen: Van Dale lexicografie (elektroniese uitgawe).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> Hierdie artikel is op 20 Maart 2003 voltooi, die dag toe militêre optrede teen Irak ’n werklikheid geword het. Die verwysings na taaldade sluit dus die daaropvolgende tydperk uit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> Soos aangehaal deur Hayakawa (1962:ix).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">[3]</span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">Uiteindelik was sy ultimatum aan Saddam Hoessein en sy seuns om Irak te verlaat, opgevolg deur ’n uitlating in sy toepsraak op 18 Maart 2003 (“Free nations have a duty to defend our people by uniting against the violent, and tonight, as we have done before, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">America</st1:place></st1:country-region> and our allies accept that responsibility.”) indirekte oorlogsverklarings, geformaliseer in sy skriftelike kennisgewing aan die Amerikaanse kongres op 19 Maart 2003.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Oorlogspraatjies03.doc#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> Die ruimte wat vir hierdie artikel afgestaan word, maak nie daarvoor voorsiening dat eksplisiete voorbeelde aangehaal <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">kan</st1:place></st1:state> word nie. Daar kan ook nie aandag geskenk word aan gesags- en verbintenishandelinge agter die skerms om nie-permanente lede van die Veilgheidsraad te oortuig om vir die betrokke resolusie te stem nie – en ander se pogings om ’n stemming daartéén te kry nie.</span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-34609326714878283912016-11-25T12:23:00.002+02:002016-11-25T15:39:00.794+02:00Hoe beteken taal? ’n Kognitiewe perspektief<h2 style="margin-top: 6pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></span></h2>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Hoe beteken taal? ’n Kognitiewe perspektief</span><a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Hoe%20beteken%20taal%20-%20'n%20kognitiewe%20perspektief%20%20-%20professorale%20intreerede.docx#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a></h2>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14pt;">W.J. Botha <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">How does language create meaning? A cognitive perspective<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Linguistics is the study of language, and language is a tool for conveying meaning. A traditional viewpoint emphasises the fact that linguistics, especially semantics, should regard meaning as something that exists in the objective world. But language is not only a tool for conveyeing meaning. It is an instrument with which meaning is created. And this point of view places the conceptualizer in the centre. Consequently, different cognitive mechanisms are applied when meaning is created. To mention three of the most distinct cognitive devices, one should consider the following: categorization, preconceptual image schemata, and metaphorical projection. These instruments are cognitively interlinked - in such a way that conceptual blending takes place in the process of meaning creation. In this regard they function on various levels of language, representing the ecological, cultural and ideological background of the language community in which they function to create meaning. The purpose of this article is to give an elaborated account of the preceding cognitive tools, in order to disclose an experiential view on meaning, but also to reveal the analytical significance of such an approach.</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Taalkunde behels die studie van taal, en taal is die medium waardeur betekenis oorgedra word. Binne ’n tradisionele beskouing is die taalkunde, en in besonder die semantiek, betrek by ’n ontleding van betekenis wat in die objektiewe werklikheid bestaan. Taal is egter nie net die medium waardeur betekenis gedra word nie. Dit is dié instrument wat betekenis genereer. En in hierdie opsig staan die betekenisgewer (konseptualiseerder van die werklikheid) in die sentrum. Verskeie kognitiewe meganismes speel ’n beslissende rol in die totstandkoming van betekenis. Drie van die belangrikste kognitiewe instrumente is kategorisering, prekonseptuele beeldskematisering en metaforiese kartering. Die genoemde werktuie tree egter nie in isolasie op nie, juis omdat hulle intern struktureel skakel. En in hierdie opsig hou hulle aard, samestelling en funksionering op verskeie taalvlakke verband met die ekologiese, kulturele en ideologiese agtergrond van die taalgemeenskap waarin hulle betekenis genereer. In hierdie artikel word die genoemde kognitiewe uitgangspunte ten opsigte van betekenis uiteengesit, ter wille van ’n wyer bekendstelling van ’n empiries-gefundeerde betekenisbeskouing, maar ook om die aandag te vestig op die analitiese bruikbaarheid van hierdie teoretiese apparatuur.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Inleiding<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Taalwetenskap word breedweg omskryf as ’n wetenskaplike studie van taal, dus ’n studie van die <u>sistematiek van die reëls</u> wat taal onderlê. Omdat taal sonder betekenis ondenkbaar is, impliseer dit ook reëls wat betekenis onderlê.<b> </b>Wierzbicka (1992:216) se bondige uiteensetting van die verhouding tussen taal en taalwetenskap onderskryf dit: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Linguistics is the study of language</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">, en (<i>l</i>)<i>anguage is a tool for conveying meaning - more than that, it is a tool with which meaning is created</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Tot redelik onlangs het die semantiek - om verskeie redes - nie sy regmatige rol in hierdie opsig vertolk nie. Leech (1981:x) merk byvoorbeeld so onlangs as 1981 op:</span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">In the last fifteen years ... there has been a swing away from a view of semantics as a messy, largely unstructured intellectual no-man’s land on the fringes of linguistics, and a tendency to accord to it a more and more central position in linguistic studies</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Hierdie gesigspuntverandering vind plaas te midde van die Chomskiaanse bloeitydperk. En Chomsky se invloed is nie te ontken nie, veral as die implikasies van een van sy grondargumente, naamlik dat alle natuurlike tale sekere algemene struktuurkenmerke met mekaar deel, in ag geneem word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Volgens Chomsky is die ooreenkomste tussen tale meer uitgebreid as wat aprioristies vermoed sou word. Hy verklaar die voorkoms van taaluniversalia aan die hand van genetiese oorerwing van intelligensiestrukture wat alle mense met mekaar deel. In hierdie opsig beskou hy die <b>kognitiewe</b>, intellektuele aspekte van menslike lewe as net so ’n wesenlike deel van die menslike biologie as wat die fisiologiese en anatomiese aspekte deel daarvan is (vergelyk Devine e.a., 1985:115). Die Chomskiaanse invloed het egter mettertyd afgeneem namate sy argumente ten opsigte van ingebore kennis van taal (wat hy “competence” noem) in ’n groter mate bevraagteken is, ten koste van sy “performance”-beskouing (d.w.s. die gebruik van taal), wat sedert 1962, na die publikasie van <i>How to do things with words</i>, deur die Oxford-filosoof J.L. Austin, aanleiding gee tot die grondlegging en ontwikkeling van die pragmatiek - tans ’n sterk gevestigde taalbeskouing wat die interafhanklikheid van taal en konteks in die totstandkoming van betekenis benadruk.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die kognitiewe linguistiek is nie soseer ’n uitvloeisel van die pragmatiek nie, alhoewel hulle tot op groot hoogte simbioties bestaan. Die opvatting bestaan natuurlik dat semantiek en pragmatiek as afsonderlike teoretiese dissiplines beskou moet word. Soos later in die oorsig sal blyk (met verwysing na kognitiewe implikasies met betrekking tot deiktiese kategorieë en die kraggestalts wat taalhandelinge onderê), hou so ’n opvatting nie stand nie. Vanparys (1993:241) se gevolgtrekkings na aanleiding van ’n ondersoek na die klassifikasie van illokusiewerkwoorde vanuit die perspektief van die kognitiewe linguistiek onderskryf hierdie standpunt.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Omdat taal as ’n produk van die menslike verstand gesien word, word dit deur dieselfde organiserende beginsels wat ander kognitiewe domeine onderlê, beheer (vegelyk Radden, 1992:513) - in teenstelling met die aanname wat onder Chomskiaanse invloed gemaak word, naamlik dat taal, omdat dit slegs een uit ’n aantal kognitiewe sisteme verteenwoordig, sy eie beginsels en reëls het, wat anderssoortig is as dié wat ander kognitiewe sisteme beheer. Daarom, gaan die argument verder, moet taal afsonderlik van die ander kognitiewe sisteme ontleed word (vergelyk Smith en Wilson, 1979:32).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Op grond van die ruimer kognitiewe benadering van taal kan die kognitiewe linguiste by monde van Lakoff (1987:xi) vrae soos die volgende vra:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Wat is rede?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Hoe word menslike ervaring sinvol vergestalt?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Wat is ’n konseptuele sisteem en op watter wyse word dit georganiseer?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Word alle menslike kognisie onderlê deur dieselfde konseptuele sisteem? Indien nie, watter algemene beginsels geld ten opsigte van die manier waarop mense dink?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Alhoewel hy erken dat die vrae niks nuuts inhou nie, maak hy daarop aanspraak dat die kognitiewe linguistiek wel met ’n aantal nuwe antwoorde vorendag kom. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die res van die uiteensetting word vervolgens gewy aan insigte vanuit die kognitiewe linguistiek op grond waarvan die <u>hoe</u> van betekenis verklaar word. Die fundamentele vertrekpunt van die kognitiewe linguistiek word in breë trekke uiteengesit, waarna drie van die belangrikste kognitiewe meganismes wat betekenis onderlê, bekendgestel word - juis om die aandag te vestig op die analitiese bruikbaarheid van sodanige teoretiese apparatuur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Uitgangspunte van die kognitiewe linguistiek</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Binne die linguistiek word die term<b> kognitief</b> gebruik om te verwys na die opvatting dat aspekte van menslike ervaring en kognisie ingrypend deur die struktuur van taal en die funksionering van taal weerspieël word (vergelyk Taylor, 1989:19); om dit omgekeerd in Jackendoff (1983:x) se woorde te stel: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(T)here is no justification for a 'semantic' capacity independent of cognition; ... when we are studying semantics of natural language, we are by necessity studying the structure of thought</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Sodanige beskouing hou ernstige gevolge in vir die opvatting dat betekenis onafhanklik van die gebruikers van taal bestaan. As fundamentele vertrekpunt word sodanige uitgangspunt bevraagteken.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Besware teen die objektivistiese inperking van betekenis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Johnson (1987:ix) is feitlik radikaal uitgesproke wanneer hy ’n aanval op die sogenaamde Objektivisme loods. Hy noem dit ’n “skokkende feit” dat teorieë oor betekenis en rasionaliteit tot op hede 1987 geen ernstige aandag aan die menslike verbeeldingsvermoë skenk nie - ’n aspek waarsonder niks in die wêreld hoegenaamd betekenisvol kan wees nie. Die fundamentele uitgangspunt van die Objektivistiese oriëntasie, gevestig in die Westerse filosofiese en kulturele tradisie, beskryf Johnson (1987:x) soos volg:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">The world consists of objects that have properties and stand in various relationships independent of human understanding</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Dit impliseer dat realiteit op ’n rasionele struktuur gegrondves is, onafhanklik van die geloof van enige persoon - en die korrekte/objektiewe rede weerspieël hierdie rasionele struktuur. En daarom word betekenis as objektief beskou, omdat dit slegs die verteenwoordiging is van die relasie wat daar bestaan tussen simbole en dinge in die wêreld, elkeen met sy eie eienskappe en relasies (volgens Johnson, 1987:x).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Reeds in 1983 opper Jackendoff ernstige besware teen so ’n beskouing wanneer hy die verband tussen betekenis en kognisie benadruk as hy sê: “One cannot perceive the ‘real world as it is'” (Jackendoff, 1983:26). Hy (1983:29) benadruk die feit dat hy die reële wêreld nie ontken nie, maar dat dit nie is wat ons sien nie! Wat ons sien, noem hy die geprojekteerde wêreld, die enigste wêreld waartoe ons bewustelik toegang het - die wêreld wat onbewustelik deur die menslike gees georganiseer word. En sy slotsom met betrekking tot betekenis en taal: “(T)he information conveyed by language must be about the projected world.” Vergelyk Jackendoff (1983:24,25).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Sonder om verder ’n eksplisiete uiteensetting te wy aan die tekortkominge van ’n objetivistiese benadering tot ’n betekenisteorie, kan dus gekonstateer word dat die antwoord op die vraag na <u>die hoe van betekenis</u> binne ’n kognitiewe beskouing opgesluit lê in ’n aanvaarding dat die totstandkoming van betekenis deur taal ’n subjektiewe basis het. Langacker (1990:5) vat dit soos volg saam: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Recent years have nevertheless witnessed the emergence and continued elaboration of a reasonably explicit, empirically grounded subjectivist or conceptualist theory of meaning - in short, a true cognitive semantics. A foundational claim of cognitive semantics is that an expression's meaning cannot be reduced to an objective characterization of the situation described: equally important for linguistic semantics is how the conceptualizer chooses to construe the situation and portray it for expressive purposes</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Kognitiewe meganismes wat betekenis onderlê<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">In hierdie uiteensetting word aan drie kognitiewe betekenismeganismes aandag geskenk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Kategorisering<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Teen die agtergrond van die uiteensetting tot dusver kan aanvaar word dat een van die essensiële aspekte van kognisie verband hou met die vermoë om te kategoriseer (vergelyk Jackendoff, 1983:77), om te oordeel of ’n item (’n referent) ’n voorbeeld is van ’n besondere kategorie - dus: om ’n referent te benoem! Lakoff (1987:5) beskou die rol van kategorisering in betekenis so belangrik (veral as ons in ag neem dat in die meeste gevalle kategorisering verband hou met abstrakte entiteite) dat hy sê:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Categorization is not a matter to be taken lightly. There is nothing more basic than categorization to our thought, perception, action, and speech.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Binne ’n tradisionele opvatting (wat hier verwys na die objektivistiese benadering) is kategorisering ’n onproblematiese verskynsel. In so ’n benadering word daar vasgehou aan ’n beskouing wat sedert Aristoteles geld, naamlik: kategorieë is abstrakte houers, met items/dinge óf binne óf buite die kategorie (vergelyk Lakoff, 1987:6). Tot redelik onlangs is hierdie klassieke opvatting oor kategorieë as ’n aksioma beskou.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">In 1945 het Ludwig Wittgenstein reeds die ontoereikendheid van hierdie opvatting besef (vergelyk Taylor, 1989:38). Dit is egter Rosch wat gedurende die tydperk 1973 tot 1975 op grond van empiriese ondersoeke na die strukture van natuurlike kategorieë die aandag vestig op die gradering van kategorie-eksemplare op grond van fokale (of prototipiese) eksemplare van die kategorie: die prototipe van die kategorie is dus die kategorielid wat as die mees tipiese eksemplaar van die kategorie beskou word, wat dus oor ’n maksimale aantal kenmerke van die kategorie beskik en oor ’n minimale aantal kenmerke van kontrasterende of aangrensende kategorieë (vergelyk MacLaury, 1991:57). So ’n beskouing hou heelparty implikasies in. Ek vestig die aandag op enkele sodanige implikasies:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Natuurlike kategorieë se grense is wasig (die sogenaamde ”fuzzy boundaries”) en kategorielede is nie noodwendig konstante eksemplare van die kategorie nie. Radden (1992:519) wys in hierdie opsig daarop dat <i>aangenome moeder</i>, <i>stiefmoeder</i> en <i>surrogaatmoede</i>r byvoorbeeld besondere tipes of uitbreidings is van die <i>huisvroumoeder</i> wat binne ’n Westerse beskouing as die definiërende of prototipe vir alle ander soorte moeders geld. Die prototipe dien dus as ’n soort kognitiewe verwysingspunt op grond waarvan die omliggende “swakker” voorbeelde van die kategorie gedefinieer word. Radden (1992:519) wys verder daarop dat selfs in kunsmatige kategorieë hierdie beginsel geld: die getal 7 is byvoorbeeld ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">onewe getal</span> as wat die getal 23 is, wat weer ’n beter voorbeeld is as die getal 57 of 477.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Indien taalgebruikers gevra word om die lede van ’n kategorie te benoem, is hulle geneig om die meer prototipiese lede eerste te noem (vergelyk Taylor, 1989:45). Verskeie empiriese ondersoeke bevestig dit. Ek noem enkele voorbeelde:<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">stoel</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">meubelstuk</span> as wat <i>bed</i> is;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">geweer</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">wapen</span> as wat <i>mes</i> is;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">mossie</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">voël</span> as wat <i>volstruis</i> is;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">appel</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">vrug</span> as wat <i>waatlemoen</i> is.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;"> Selfs wat werkwoorde betref, het Pulman (1983:113) ten opsigte van Engels onder andere die volgende bevind:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">murder</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;"> kill</span> as wat <i>execute</i> is;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">lie</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">deceive</span> as wat <i>cheat</i> is;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">stride</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">walk</span> as wat <i>pace</i> is;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">grasp</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> is ’n beter voorbeeld van die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">hold</span><span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> </span>as wat <i>clutch</i> is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die prototipeteorie hou verband met die twee asse van kategorisering: die entiteit/referent wat as prototipe van die kategorie optree, staan op die horisontale vlak in verhouding tot sy ko-hiponieme, maar op die vertikale vlak staan dit dit in verhouding tot ’n superordinaat op ’n hoër hiërargiese vlak, óf tree dit as superordinaat op ten opsigte van hiponieme op ’n laer hiërargiese vlak. ’n Bepaalde entiteit/referent kan dus op verskeie maniere gekategoriseer word: <i>blom</i>, <i>roos</i>, <i>plant</i> en <i>rankroos</i> (op verskillende hiërargiese vlakke)<i> </i>kan almal na dieselfde referent verwys. Maar een van hierdie woorde verwys na ’n vlak van kategorisering wat kognitief en linguisties meer opvallend is as die ander, naamlik <i>roos</i>. Dit word die <u>basiese vlak van kategorisering</u> genoem, die vlak waarop dinge as perseptuele en funksionele gestalts gekonseptualiseer word (vergelyk Taylor, 1989:48), die vlak waarop daar normaalweg oor die werklikheid gepraat word (vergelyk Downing, 1977, soos na verwys in Taylor, 1989:48). Daar is empiries bevind (vergelyk Radden, 1992:520) dat proefpersone geen enkele verbeeldingsvoorstelling met superordinate vereenselwig nie, byvoorbeeld met die superordinate <i>boom</i>, <i>meubelstuk</i>, <i>musiekinstrument</i>, ensovoorts - maar dat hulle baie duidelike en gedetailleerde kognitiewe beeld vorm van basiesevlakkategorieë, soos <i>wilger</i>, <i>stoel</i> en <i>klavier</i>. Die ernstigste beswaar teen die basiesevlakkategorie-opvatting is dat dit nie objektiewe status het nie, omdat die kompleksiteit van hiërargiese kennisstrukture van persoon tot persoon wissel. Hierdie beswaar onderskryf egter die kognitiewe opvatting dat kategoriesisteme nie objektief in die werklikheid bestaan nie, maar dat dit gevestig en ingebed is in menslike <u>ervaring</u><span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> (</span>vergelyk<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> </span>Radden, 1992:521).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">In aansluiting by die ervaringsbasis van betekenis word die prototipeteorie verder verfyn om die beheersendepuntteorie (”vantage point theory”) in te sluit. Volgens MacLaury (1991:62) word as vertrekpunt aanvaar dat sprekers kategorieë kognitief konstrueer, in stand hou en verander na analogie van die wyse waarop hulle hul eie posisie ruimtelik ervaar en verstaan. Langacker (1990:6) wys daarop dat enige uitdrukking se besondere betekenis (semantiese waarde) bepaal word deur die mate waarin die konseptualiseerder verkies om die taaluitingsituasie kognitief te konstrueer en tot uitdrukking te bring. En in hierdie opsig word die taaluitdrukking se besondere semantiese waarde deur verskillende kognitiewe konstrueringsmeganismes bepaal, waaronder die volgende:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">die graad van bepaaldheid waarmee die situasie beskryf word;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">agtergrondaannames en -verwagtinge;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">relatiewe prominensie in verhouding tot verskillende entiteite;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">die perspektief waaruit die situasie beskryf word.</span></div>
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<u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></u></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">Deiksis</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> en </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">beheersende punt</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> kan as aspekte van </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">perspektief</u><i style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;"> </i><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">beskou word.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Vervolgens word ter illustrasie aandag geskenk aan kognitiewe konstruering wat saamhang met <u>deiktiese verankering</u> en die <u>graad van bepaaldheid</u> waarmee ’n situasie beskryf word. Teen die agtergrond van die voorgaande uiteensetting word, na aanleiding van Botha en Odendal (1989), enkele opmerkings gemaak oor die woord <i>die</i>, wat op grond van veral sintaktiese oorwegings tot die kategorie <u>bepaalde lidwoord</u> gereken word, en wat op grond van deiktiese oorwegings verskillende grade van bepaaldheid vergestalt.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Aangesien die deiktiese herkoms van <i>die</i> hierin ’n belangrike rol speel, word vir eers ’n paar opmerkings oor die begrip ’deiksis’ gemaak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Lank voordat die kognitiewe linguistiek sy beslag gekry het, reeds in 1934, gebruik Bühler die woord <i>deiksis</i> om te verwys na aspekte van ’n taaluiting waarvan die interpretasie afhanklik is van kennis van die konteks waarin dit voorkom. In 1968 beskryf Rommetveit deiktiese woorde as taalmeganismes wat besonderhede van die spreker en hoorder se gedeelde kognitiewe veld (ervaring) in die taaluiting inbou (vergelyk Rommetveit, 1968:197, soos aangehaal deur Miller en Johnson-Laird, 1976:395). ’n Beknopter definisie van deiksis kan soos volg gestel word: <i>dit is die skakel tussen taal en werklikheid</i> - binne hierdie bespreking die kognitiewe skakel. Die volgende woorde tree as tipiese deiktiese woorde op:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">persoonlike voornaamwoorde - op grond waarvan van <u>persoonsdeiksis</u> gepraat word;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">tydverwysende woorde soos <i>nou</i>, <i>dan</i>, <i>toe</i>, <i>gister</i>, ens. - op grond waarvan <u>tyddeiksis</u> sy beslag kry;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">plekverwysende woorde soos <i>hier</i>, <i>daar</i>, <i>hierdie</i>, <i>daardie</i>, ens. - wat <u>plekdeiksis</u> onderlê.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Ten opsigte van al drie deiktiese kategorieë tree die <u>spreker</u> as onontbeerlike kognitiewe verwysingspunt op, onderskeidelik <u>indentifiserend</u>, <u>tydverwysen</u>d en <u>ruimtelik</u>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Met betrekking tot plekdeiksis word daar ook nog onderskei tussen </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">eksterne deiksis</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> en </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">intrinsieke deiksis</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Die onderskeid word aan die hand van die volgende voorbeelde verduidelik:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(1) Die hond is <b>agter </b><u>die motor</u>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(2) Die hond is <b>agter</b> <u>die boom</u>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die spreker se egosentriese ruimtelike basis en oriëntasiesisteem (<i>voor</i>/<i>agter</i>; <i>links</i>/<i>regs</i>; <i>bo</i>/<i>onder</i>) dien as verwysingsbasis op grond waarvan daar ruimtelik verwys kan word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">In verhouding tot die sprekersbasispunt tree die plekverwysingspunte (onderskeidelik <i>motor</i> en <i>boom</i>) op om ’n bepaalde referent <u>ekstern</u> te lokaliseer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Indien die spreker se oriëtasiesisteem algeheel op <i>motor</i> oorgedra word, verkry <i>motor</i> ’n intrinsiek-deiktiese oriëntasie en kan verwysing na die gelokaliseerde referent geskied in ooreenstemming met die intrinsiek-deiktiese oriëntasie van <i>motor</i>. Gevolglik is die sprekersbasispunt irrelevant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Ten opsigte van die gedeeltelike oordrag van die spreker se oriëntasiesisteem op <i>boom</i> is dit interessant om daarop te let dat in die nie-Westerse tale soos Hausa en Djerma (wat in Nigerië gepraat word), die oriëntasieoordrag byvoorbeeld andersom geskied as wat dit die geval by Westerse taalgebruikers is (vergelyk Schwerdtfeger, 1982:60).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Botha en Odendal (1989:136) kom tot drie gevolgtrekkings op grond van die ontleding van die Van Wyk Louw-gebruik van <i>die</i> in voorbeelde soos onder andere die volgende:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(3) “<u>Die lewe</u> ... <i>dié</i><b> </b>sal ons saamgryp en verenig” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> (’n geaksentueerde <i>die</i> anafories gebruik)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(4) “<u>Sy legioene</u>, <i>die</i> het self gepraat”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> (’n ongeaksentueerde <i>die</i> anafories gebruik)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(5) “Vir <i><u>dié</u></i><u> van ons</u> wat oud sal word”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> (’n geaksentueerde of ongeaksentueerde <i>die</i> as PRE-DET-element)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(6) “maar <i>dié</i> <u>wat</u> skoonheid en hoogheid dra as las”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> (’n geaksentueerde of ongeaksentueerde <i>die</i> as antesedent)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(7) “Dis opstand <i>dié</i>. So’t ek dit nie verwag”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> (’n geaksentueerde of ongeaksentueerde <i>die</i> selfstandig gebruik)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die geaksentueerde <i>dié</i> word naas <i>hierdie </i>ekstern deikties gebruik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Sowel die geaksentueerde as ongeaksentueerde <i>die</i> word in hulle verskillende variasievorme van die prototipiese lidwoord intrinsiek deikties gebruik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die seleksie van <i>die</i> word pragmaties eerder as grammaties bepaal. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Dit is veral die laaste gevolgtrekking wat in die lug hang omdat die kognitiewe rol van die spreker/skrywer nie bepaal is nie. In Botha (manuskrip) word die navorsing verder gevoer om juis die genoemde gevolgtrekking kognitief te nuanseer. Vanuit ’n kategorieperspektief word tot die volgende slotsom gekom:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die kategorie waartoe <u>die</u> behoort, sluit onder andere demonstratiewe, anafore, antesedente, predetermineerders en lidwoorde in. Die bepaalde lidwoord kan as die prototipe van die betrokke kategorie beskou word. Die nie-prototipiese lede van die kategorie kom tot stand op grond van die feit dat <u>die</u> as ’n verwysingsmeganisme oor ’n wisselende graad van <b>direktiewe krag</b> beskik, dit wil sê die gebruik van <u>die</u> stel die spreker kognitief in staat om ’n situasie te konstrueer in ooreenstemming met sý</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> <i>konseptualisering van die relatiewe status wat die entiteit waarna verwys word, binne sy (die spreker) se verwysingsraamwerk het.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Hiermee word volstaan met kategorisering as betekenismeganisme. Vervolgens die tweede kognitiewe betekeniswerktuig.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Beeldskemas<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Guinness et al. (1990:173) noem dat daar mense is wat beter in beeldskemas dink as in woorde: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">These nonverbal or visual thinkers have included scientists like Albert Einstein and Michael Faraday, who said that their great discoveries came to them first as pictures and spatial relationships, which they then translated into words</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Johnson (1987:xiii) benadruk die standpunt dat enige aanneemlike verklaring van <u>betekenis</u><i> </i>en <u>rasionaliteit</u> erkenning moet gee aan die feit dat ons begrip van die wêreld onderlê word deur ’n <u>beliggaamde</u> struktuur<b> </b>en ’n <b> </b><u>verbeelding</u>struktuur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"><u>Beliggaming</u> is ’n kernbeginsel van die kognitiewe linguistiek. Dit kom daarop neer dat ons abstraksies modelleer op grond van ons <b>liggaamlike ervaring van die werklikheid</b> in terme van ’n <u>verbeeldingstruktuur</u> wat saamgestel is uit<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> </span><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">beeldskematiese strukture</span>. Sodanige beeldskematiese strukture hou verband met die <b>menslike liggaamlike ervaring</b> van onder andere die volgende: <b>ruimte</b>, <b>krag</b>, <b>sensasie</b>, <b>basiesevlakobjekte</b> (vergelyk MacLaury, 1991:65).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Hierdie prekonseptuele strukture word (<u>verbeeldingsmatig</u> - vergelyk Johnson 1987: xiv) veral op twee maniere na die abstrakte denke getransponeer, naamlik by wyse van <u>analogie</u> en <u>metaforiek</u>. In hierdie opsig bestaan daar ’n parallelisme tussen <u>beliggaming</u> en die <u>prototipebeginsel</u> vir sover konkrete ervaring dien as verwysingsdomein op grond waarvan ander (abstrakte) ervarings by wyse van <u>ekstensie</u> gekonstrueer word (vergelyk MacLaury, 1991:65). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Vir eers word kortliks aandag geskenk aan twee groepe beeldskemas wat nou saamhang met beliggaming, naamlik die <u>ruimtebeeldskemas</u> en die <u>kragbeeldskemas</u>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Ten opsigte van die <u>ruimtebeeldskemas</u> wys Lakoff (vergelyk Taylor, 1989:134-135) daarop dat baie vlakke van ervaring metafories gestruktureer word op grond van ’n klein aantal beeldskemas, waaronder die volgende:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Houerskema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Hierdie beeldskema profilieer ’n <u>houer</u> (met ’n binnekant en ’n buitekant) teen die agtergrond van driedimensionele ruimte. Metafories word hierdie beeldskema op ’n groot aantal nieruimtelike domeine toegepas, byvoorbeeld:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">linguistiese eenhede, gesprekke en diskoerse word as houers gekonseptualiseer: <i>hy sit sy gedagtes om <u>in</u> woorde</i>; <i><u>uit</u> hierdie gesprek lei ek af</i> ...; <i><u>leë</u> woorde</i>; ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">à<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">emosionele toestande word as houers gekonseptualiseer<i>: hy het <u>in</u> ’n woedebui uitgebars</i>; <i><u>uit</u> sy angsvalligheid blyk dit dat</i> <i>...</i>;<b><i> </i></b><i><u>in</u> haar liefdes-/angs-/vrees-/haattoestand</i>; ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Sonder verduideliking, maar met ’n voorbeeld by elkeen, word enkele ander ruimtebeeldskemas vermeld:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Oorsprong-roete-doelwit-skema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Die lewe word byvoorbeeld dikwels as ’n reis gekonseptualiseer: <i>ons<b> </b><u>kom</u> iewers in die lewe</i>; <i>sy lewenspad <u>gaan</u> langs steiltes</i>; <i>hy het baie <u>bereik</u> in die lewe</i>; ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Nabyheid/afstand-skema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Vergelyk die volgende voorbeelde waarin ruimtelike betrekkinge op nieruimtelike domeine geprojekteer word: <i>hy behou sy <u>sosiale afstand</u></i>; <i>in die<b> </b><u>nabye</u> toekoms</i>; <i><u>ver</u> in die verlede</i>. Uit die laaste twee voorbeelde merk ons op dat tyd ook dikwels in terme van ruimte gekonseptualiseer word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Skakelskema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Vergelyk die volgende voorbeelde<i>: hy het sy familie<u>betrekkinge</u> <u>verbreek</u></i>; <i>hulle bly <u>in kontak</u> met mekaar; hulle het hegte vriendskaps<u>bande</u> <u>gesmee</u></i>; ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Voor/agter-oriëntasie-skema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Daar is reeds vroeër gewys op die projeksie van die intrinsiek-deiktiese oriëntasie van die spreker/konseptualiseerder op objekte buite sy ego-domein. Die berus fundamenteel op hierdie skema.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Deel-geheel-skema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Metafories word hierdie skema byvoorbeeld toegepas op abstraksies soos interpersoonlike verhoudinge, waar dit gaan om verskillende konfigurasies waaruit die geheel bestaan, en die herrangskikking van dele van die geheel om nuwe konfigurasies te vorm, byvoorbeeld: <i>hulle <u>vriendskap</u></i> (geheel) <i>word verbreek</i>, <i><u>hulle</u></i> (dele)<i> gaan uiteen, maar word later weer <u>versoen</u></i><b> </b>(nuwe geheel).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Lineêrerangskikking-skema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Hierdie skema hou veral verband met ons konseptualisering van tydsaspekte (relatief ruimtelik gerangskik) op ’n lineêre as.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Bo/onder-oriëntasie-skema</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">. Hierdie skema skakel ook nou met deiktiese transponering, ’n aspek wat reeds aandag geniet het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Lakoff (vergelyk Taylor, 1989:135) is van oordeel dat beeldskemas so <b>diep gewortel deel van menslike ervaring is</b> dat hulle <u>universele prelinguistiese strukture</u> daarstel. <b>En die meeste skemas hou verband met ons ervaring van die menslike liggaam</b>. Vergelyk byvoorbeeld die houerskema wat primêr <b>die mens se ervaring van sy liggaam as houer</b> vergestalt.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">’n Belangrike aspek wat bekelemtoon moet word, is die feit dat hierdie ervaringskemas (beeldskemas) ’n gestalt-geaardheid het, dit wil sê hulle tree as koherente, betekenisvolle, verenigde gehele op binne die menslike ervaring en kognisie (vergelyk Johnson, 1987:41). Hulle </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">genereer</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> dus </span><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">koherensie</b><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> vir, </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">bewerkstellig</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">eenheid</b><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> in, en </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">beperk</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> ons </span><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">betekenisnetwerk</b><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> (aldus Johnson, 1987:41).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">’n Alomteenwoordige ervaringsdimensie hou met </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">kraginteraksie</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> verband. Om die aard daarvan te verstaan, is dit nodig om na die gestaltstruktuur van die </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt;">kragbeeldskema</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> te kyk.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Talmy (1985:293) vestig die aandag daarop dat kragdinamika ’n semantiese kategorie konstitueer wat baie lank misken is, en wys daarop dat die wyse waarop “entities interact with respect to force” ... “plays a structuring role across a range of language levels”; en sê verder: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">The force dynamic system, finally, is a major conceptual organizing system. It incorporates schematic conceptual models of physical phenomena, which, by analogy, it extends to psychological and social phenomena</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Johnson (1987:44) benadruk die feit dat ons daaglikse bestaan gekenmerk word deur die <u>ervaring</u><span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> </span>van kragte wat ons uitoefen, kragte wat op ons uitgeoefen word, en kragte wat in ons omgewing op mekaar inwerk. Sodanige kragte baan as tipiese patroonmatige ervarings hulle weg tot in ons betekenissisteem, ons taaluitdrukkingstruktuur en in ons talige kommunikasie as sodanig. In hierdie opsig tree hulle dus as beeldskemas op. Hy noem die volgende aspekte wat verband hou met die prekonseptuele gestaltstruktuur van krag - wat dus die algemene gestaltstruktuur van krag konstitueer: kraginteraksie; vektorkwaliteit/direksionaliteit van krag; pad van beweging van krag; oorsprong of bron van krag; grade van intensiteit van krag; en struktuur of opeenvolging van krag.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">En die fundamentele vertrekpunt van die kognitiewe linguistiek is dat betekenis (veral: linguistiese betekenis) gedra word deur gestaltstrukture soos dié. Die voorgaande gestaltstruktuur verteenwoordig ’n baie algemene en abstrakte struktuur. Johnson (1987:45-48) beskryf ook die volgende besondere beeldskematiese gestalts van krag en kragverhoudings wat ’n impak op bepaalde betekenis- en taalhandelingsdomeine het. Dit word sonder bespreking genoem:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Kragvoortstuwing/(-kompulsie)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Kragblokkasie<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Teenkrag<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Kragherleiding<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Kragopheffing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Kragbemagtiging<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Aantrekkingskrag<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Alhoewel hierdie strukture prelinguisties bestaan, dien hulle nie slegs as agtergrond waaruit betekenis ontwikkel nie; hulle vorm self deel van betekenis en begrip - hulle is op sigself betekenisstrukture. En hulle linguistiese beslag kry hulle onder andere in die <u>wortelbetekenisse</u> van modale hulpwerkwoorde en in taalhandelinge (vergelyk Johnson, 1987:48). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Voordat iets oor die wortelbetekenisse van modale hulpwerkwoorde gesê word, word kortliks na <u>taalhandelingskragte</u> verwys.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"><b>Elke taaluiting is ’n handeling</b>. Daarom word <b>elke taaluiting deur ’n taalhandelingskrag onderlê</b>. In wese hou taalhandelinge verband met ’n spreker se intensie en bedoeling met die uiting. Sodanige bedoelings (tegnies ’n <u>illokusie</u> genoem) hou verband met kraggestalts op die vlak van stellingshandelinge, ekspressiewe handelinge, evalueringshandelinge, direktiewe handelinge, gesagshandelinge en verbintenishandelinge. Ter illustrasie word ’n voorbeeld uit die drama <i>Germanicus</i>, deur N.P. van Wyk Louw, gebruik (júís omdat die drama die kanonieke gespreksituasie so goed simuleer).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Ten tye van ’n veldslag in Noord-Frankryk naby die huidige Nederlande word Germanicus deur sy soldate onder druk geplaas om na die suide (Rome) uit te trek en in ’n verraadsaanval Tiberius te verslaan. Sonder om in besonderhede uit te wy, kan genoem word dat dit dus hier gaan om <u>teenkragte</u> wat verbaal in die dialoog vergestalt word. In ’n poging om tyd te wen, rig Germanicus hom tot die soldate met die volgende twee woorde:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(8) “Eers noord!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Binne die bepaalde konteks vergestalt die bepaalde uiting nie net op ’n subtiele wyse twee taalhandelingskragte nie (naamlik ’n <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">direktief</span> en ’n <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">verbintenishandeling</span>), maar word daar ook uitdrukking gegee aan twee kraggestalts, naamlik <u>kragvoortstuwing</u>/(-<u>kompulsie</u>) (deur die <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">bevel</span>/<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">opdrag</span>) en <u>kragherleiding</u> (deur die <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">implisiete belofte</span><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">). V</span>ergelyk Botha (1991) vir ’n vollediger bespreking.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">Teen die agtergrond van kraggestalts word daar vervolgens na aanleiding van Johnson (1987:48-57) enkele gedagtes uitgespreek met betrekking tot die wortelbetekenisse van </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">modale hulpwerkwoorde</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">Modaliteit is ’n ingewikkelde begrip wat deur die jare talle filosofiese argumente na vore gebring het - argumente wat die betekenisse van modale hulpwerkwoorde byvoorbeeld reduseer tot ons ervaring van </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">werklikheid</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">, </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">moontlikheid</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;"> en </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">noodwendigheid</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">. </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">Epistemiese modaliteit</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;"> hou verband met die beoordeling van ’n proposisie op ’n </span><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">moontlikheid-sekerheid</b><i style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">-</i><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">skaal (vergelyk Botha et al., 1989:88-92), terwyl </span><u style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">deontiese modaliteit</u><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;"> verband hou met die direktiewe krag van die proposisie op die skale </span><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">noodsaaklikheid/verpligting</b><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">; </span><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">vermoë/toestemming</b><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">; en </span><b style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">wens/intensie</b><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">; dus sosiale en morele verpligting (vergelyk Johnson, 1987:50). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; text-indent: 14.2pt;">Modaliteit is egter onteenseglik deel van ons wêreld/werklikheid.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Vergelyk byvoorbeeld in die betekenisse van die volgende drie modale hulpwerkwoorde die beeldskemas wat kraggestalts in die alledaagse lewe blootlê:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">moet</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> - ons voel <u>verplig</u> deur kragte buite ons beheer; dus: <u>kragvoortstuwing</u>;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">mag</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> - ons word <u>toegelaat</u> om handelinge (kragte) van ons keuse uit te voer; dus <u>kragopheffing</u>;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">kan</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> - ons <u>voel</u> in staat om handelinge (kragte) op ’n sekere manier uit te oefen: dus: <u>kragbemagtiging</u>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die kognitiewe benadering bied ’n baie aanneemlike betekenisverklaring vir sowel epistemiese as deontiese vraagstukke. Sweetser (vergelyk Johnson, 1987:50) onderskei slegs twee kategorieë betekenisse ten opsigte van modale werkwoorde, naamlik <u>wortelbetekenis</u> (wat deontiese modaliteit insluit) en <u>epistemiese betekenis</u>. Sy beweer dan dat die verskillende betekenisse van modale werkwoorde metafories met mekaar skakel in dié opsig dat die fisiese ’n metafoor word vir die niefisiese (verstandelike, rasionele en sosiale). Sy baseer haar uitspraak op ’n onderskeid wat sy tref ten opsigte van drie verwante dimensies van ervaring: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">die <u>sosio-fisiese domein</u>, wat sowel fisiese interaksie as sosiale en institusionele verhoudings insluit;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">die <u>epistemiese domein</u>, wat rasionele argumentasie, teoretisering en ander soorte verwante redevoering insluit; en<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">taalhandelingstrukture</span></u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Dit beteken dus dat modale werkwoorde wat op die fisiese en sosiale wêreld van toepassing is, nie radikaal in betekenis verskil indien hulle binne die domein van rasionele denke en argumentasie gebruik word nie. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Vergelyk ter illustrasie die volgende twee voorbeelde uit <i>Dias</i> deur N.P. van Wyk Louw:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(9) “... maar sê een woord, dan <i><u>sal</u></i> my siel gesond word” (epistemies)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(10) “en elke man hier <i><u>sal</u></i> sy naam hier skrywe” (deonties)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Vergelyk in hierdie verband Botha et al. (1989) se ontleding van die voorkoms van modale hulpwerkwoorde in <i>Dias</i>, deur N.P. van Wyk Louw, ter illustrasie van die wyse waarop modale hulpwerkwoorde kraggestalt-interaksies kontekstueel tot stand bring. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die metafoor<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Daar bestaan ’n inherente verband tussen die metafoor en beeldskemas. Lakoff (1990:39) gaan so ver om te sê dat omdat beeldskematiese denkpatrone deur metaforiese kartering op abstrakte denkpatrone oorgedra word, sekere abstrakte denkpatrone - indien nie almal nie - metaforiese weergawes van beeldskematiese denke is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Hier word gepraat van die verbleekte metafoor, die sogenaamde ‘dooie’ metafoor - die metafore wat so alledaags voorkom dat ons hulle nie sonder meer as metafore herken nie, juis omdat hulle ’n hele netwerk verwante ‘letterklike’ betekenisse onderlê. Dit gaan dus nie hier om die innoverende (of kreatiewe) metafoor nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die begrip ‘metafoor’ is self ’n metafoor. Die woord <i>metafoor</i> slaan op die Griekse werkwoord <i>meta-ferein</i>, wat beteken: “om oor te dra”. In wese skakel die metafoor twee ervaringsdomeine met mekaar (óf twee subdomeine van dieselfde ervaringsdomein) - vergelyk Dirven (1994:8/28).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Die volgende verduideliking geskied na aanleiding van Lakoff (1990:47-51) se <u>liefde</u>-voorbeeld.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Engels het talle voorbeelde (en so ook Afrikaans) wat tot uitdrukking bring dat liefde onder andere as ’n reis gekonseptualiseer word, byvoorbeeld:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(11) Die verhouding <u>kom</u> nêrens nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(12) Die verhouding is <u>op die rotse</u>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> Ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Vergelyk ook enkele voorbeelde uit die Bybel waarin die woord <i>liefde</i> eksplisiet genoem word:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(13) “met koorde van liefde het Ek hulle <u>getrek</u>” (Hosea 11:4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(14) “… <u>wandel</u> jy nie meer volgens die liefde nie” (Romeine 14: 15)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(15) “<u>Jaag</u> die liefde <u>na</u>” (1 Korinthiërs 14:1)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Wat dus hier gebeur, is dat een ervaringsdomein, <u>liefde</u>, verstaan word in terme van ’n ander ervaringsdomein, <u>reise</u>. Die metafoor kan dus verstaan word as ’n heggestruktureerde karteringsproses. Die kartering vind vanuit ’n bronervaringsdomein (<u>reise</u>) na ’n doelwitervaringsdomein (<u>liefde</u>) plaas (vergelyk Lakoff, 1990:48-49).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Sonder om in besonderhede uit te wei, word (met ’n voorbeeld by elk) enkele tipiese metafore genoem op grond waarvan ons betekenis aan die lewe gee. Lakoff & Johnson (1980) praat van “<i>metaphors we live by</i>”. Vergelyk die volgende. Die doelwitervaringsdomein word eerste genoem, en dan die bronervaringsdomein:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> Woede is vloeistof / hitte in ’n houer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(16) Hy was so kwaad, hy het <u>ontplof</u>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> Argument is oorlog<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(17) Hy het sy standpunt swak <u>verdedig</u>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> Oorsake is kragte<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">(18) Die oorwinning het hulle <u>laat</u> juig.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">En so kan ons voortgaan. Wat egter van belang is, is dat hierdie verskillende metafore ook interaksioneel verband hou.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Ons volstaan met die volgende beskrywing van die metafoor, aldus Lakoff (1990:49):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 16pt;"> <i>Wat die metafoor tot stand bring, is nie soseer ’n besondere woord of uitdrukking nie. Die metafoor kom tot stand op grond van ontologiese en epistemiese kartering wat vanaf ’n brondomein na ’n doelwitdomein geskied. Dit is dus nie slegs taal wat die metafoor konstitueer nie - maar ook denke en rede. Die taal vergestalt slegs die karteringsproses.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 16pt;">Samevatting: kategorieë, beeldskemas en metafore<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; font-weight: normal;">Die drie kognitiewe betekenismeganismes tree nie elk in isolasie op nie. Hulle staan in ’n integrale verhouding tot mekaar op grond van die feit dat die mens sy wêreld kognitief orden in ooreenstemming met ’n verbeeldingsvermoë wat onderlê word deur ’n beliggaamde struktuur en ’n verbeeldingstruktuur. Laasgenoemde strukture is skematiese strukture wat in verband staan met die mens se ervaring van die werklikheid. Hierdie strukture word metafories uitgebrei, verruim en geprojekteer om verskillende aspekte van betekenis, denke en taalhandelinge met mekaar in verband te bring.<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Gevolgtrekkings<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; font-weight: normal;">Wat in die voorgaande uiteensetting nie so eksplisiet gestel is nie, is die feit dat <u>kontekstuele determinante</u> die kognitiewe aard van betekenisgewing beïnvloed - juis omdat elke afsonderlike konteks ’n verskeidenheid veranderlikes daarstel wat subjektief of kollektief beleef word. Vanuit ’n kollektiewe perspektief kan onder andere die volgende aspekte wat ’n rol by betekenisgewing speel, genoem word: die ekologiese, kulturele en ideologiese agtergrond waarbinne die betekenismeganismes optree om betekenis te skep; ook bepaalde tydsdimensies en tydsdure, wat veral belangrik is met betrekking tot die proses van grammatikalisering.<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; font-weight: normal;">Wat kontekstualisering (dus betekenisgewing binne/vanuit ’n bepaalde konteks) betref, bied die kognitiewe taalbeskouing nuttige ontledings- en interpretasieraamwerke - instrumente wat oor ’n hele konteksspektrum toepassingswaarde het, onder andere die literatuur, die politiek, die regspraktyk, die sosiale aard van kleiner en groter taalgemeenskappe - trouens enige konteks waarin daar sprake is van individuele of gemeenskaplike taalgebruik. Sonder om besonderhede te verstrek, word slegs twee insiggewende voorbeelde van navorsing wat in hierdie verband gedoen is, genoem:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">In 1992 verskyn George Lakoff se artikel <i>Metaphor and war</i>, waarin die metafoorsisteem wat gebruik is om die Golfoorlog te regverdig, ondersoek word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">In 1994 verskyn René Dirven se <i>Metaphor and Nation</i>. <i>Metaphors Afrikaners live by</i>. Hierin probeer hy die Afrikaanse metafoorsisteem blootlê op grond waarvan ’n (eertydse) sosiale organisasie plaasgevind het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt; font-weight: normal;">Tans staan ons in Suid-Afrika in ’n tydperk waarin daar betekenis gegee moet word aan ’n nuwe sosiale orde. Beeldskematiese prelinguistiese strukture waaraan talig gestalte gegee moet word, sluit onder andere <u>kragherleiding</u> en <u>kragbemagtiging</u> in. Op grond daarvan vind beeldskematiese uitbreidings en projeksies plaas wat veral kraggestalts in die sentrum plaas, weergegee in onder andere: <i><u>her</u>opbou-en-ontwikkeling</i>; <i><u>her</u>verdeling</i>; <i><u>her</u>skryf</i>; <i><u>toe</u>gang</i> en <i>beheer</i>; <i><u>reg</u>stellende <u>aksie</u></i>; <i>mense<u>regte</u></i>; <i><u>transformasie</u></i>; <i>naams<u>verandering</u></i>; ensovoorts; ensovoorts. Suid-Afrika is in ’n proses waarin deur die ontwikkeling van ’n hegverweefde netwerk van metafore <u>betekenis gegee word</u> aan ’n nuwe Suid-Afrika!<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></h3>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Summary </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Linguistics is the study of language, and language is a tool for conveying meaning. A traditional viewpoint emphasises the fact that linguistics, specially semantics, should regard meaning as something that exists in the objective world. But language is not only a tool for conveying meaning. It is an instrument with which meaning is created. From a cognitive point of view an expression’s meaning cannot be reduced to an objective characterisation of the situation described, due to the fact that the conceptualizer finds himself in the centre of the situation. Consequently different cognitive mechanisms are applied when meaning is created.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">To mention three of the most distinct cognitive devices, one should consider the following: categorisation, preconceptual image schemata, and metaphorical projection.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Cognition</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">underlies</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">the ability to categorise; and categorisation induces perception, thought, speech, and action. From a cognitive point of view natural categories do not have clear boundaries; their boundaries are fuzzy, and members of a specific category are not indispensable constant members of that category. A prototypical member of the category acts as a cognitive reference point, and the surrounding less significant members are defined in accordance with the prototype: the central member, or best example of the category. Although basic-level categories are cognitively more salient, they are not experienced invariably as such, due to the fact that they are firmly established in human experience. And linked to the experiential basis of meaning, is vantage point theory, which implies that a speaker cognitively construes categories in accordance with his own locality and the way in which he experiences it. From this point of view the specific meaning of an utterance is determined by construal mechanisms such as the degree of definiteness with which an entity is perceived, background assumptions, relative prominence in relation to other entities, and the perspective of the conceptualizer. Consequently, deixis links closely with vantage point.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Cognitive linguistics also emphasises the embodied origin of imaginative structures of understanding, portrayed by image schemata and their metaphorical elaborations. Understanding links with imaginative structures that emerge from bodily experience in interaction with the environment. Image schemata function as preconceptual structures of experience that are metaphorically projected to constitute a network of meanings.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">These mechanisms are cognitively interlinked - in such a way that conceptual blending takes place in the process of meaning creation. In this regard they function on various levels of language, representing the ecological, cultural and ideological background of the language community in which they function to create meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 16pt;">Verwysings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Austin, J.L. 1962. <i>How to do things with words</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Botha, W.J. (Manuskrip). <i>Aspects of the category </i>die<i> in Afrikaans</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Botha, W.J. 1991. Taalhandelingsdeterminante in die onderrig. <i>Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Taalkunde</i> 9(1): 24-29.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Botha, W.J. en F.F. Odendal. 1989. Hierdie <i>die</i>. <i>Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Taalkunde</i> 7(4): 131-137.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Botha, W.J., C.J. Conradie en Rika Preller. 1989. Modale hulpwerkwoorde in <i>Dias</i>. In Conradie, C.J. (red.) 1989: 73-115.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Bühler, K. 1934. <i>Sprachtheorie</i>. Jena: Fisher.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Conradie, C.J. (red.) 1989. <i>Onomheinde sin</i>. Johannesburg: RAU.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Devine, E., M. Held, J. Vinson en G. Walsh (eds.) 1985. <i>Thinkers of the twentieth century</i>. Londen: Firethorn Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dirven, R. 1994. <i>Metaphor and nation</i>. Duisburg Papers on Language and Culture, Vol. 22. Frankfurt/M: Lang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Eilfort, W.H., P.D. Kroeber en K.L. Peterson (eds.) 1985. <i>Papers from the parassession on causitives and agentivity at the twenty-first regional meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society</i>. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Guinness, A.E. (ed.) 1990. <i>ABC’s of the human mind</i>. Pleasantville, New York: Reader’s Digest Association.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jackendoff, R. 1983. <i>Semantics and cognition</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Johnson, M. 1987. <i>The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination and reason</i>. Chicago, Londen: University of Chicago Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lakoff, G. & M. Johnson. 1980. <i>Metaphors we live by</i>. Chicago, Londen: University of Chicago Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lakoff, G. 1987. <i>Women, fire, and dangerous things</i>. Chicago, Londen: University of Chicago Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lakoff, G. 1990. The Invariance Hypothesis: is abstract reason based on image-schemas? <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i> 1(1): 39-74.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lakoff, G. 1992. Metaphors and war: the metaphor system used to justify war in the gulf. In Pütz (red.) 1992: 463-481.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Langacker, R.W. 1990. Subjectification. <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i> 1(1):5-38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Leech, G. 1981. <i>Semantics </i>(Second Edition). Bungay, Suffolk: Richard Clay. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">MacLaury, R.E. 1991. Prototypes revisited. <i>Annual Reviews Anthropology</i> 20:55-74<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Miller, G. A. en P. N. Johnson-Laird. 1976. <i>Language and perception</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pulman, S.G. 1983. <i>Word meaning and belief</i>. Londen & Canberra: Croom Helm.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pütz, M. (ed.) 1992. <i>Thirty years of linguistic evolution</i>. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Radden, G. 1992. The cognitive approach to natural language. In Pütz (red.) 1992: 513-541.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rosch, E.H. 1973. Natural categories. <i>Cognitive Psychology</i> 4:328-350.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rosch, E.H. 1975. Cognitive reference points. <i>Cognitive Psychology</i> 7:532-547.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Schwerdtfeger, A.M. 1982. Deiksis: oriëntasie en konfrontasie in die ruimte. <i>Klasgids</i> 17(2): 52-63.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Smith, N. en D. Wilson. 1979. <i>Modern linguistics</i>. <i>The results of Chomsky’s revolution</i>. Bungay, Suffolk: Richard Clay.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Taylor, J.R. 1989. <i>Linguistic categorization</i>. <i>Prototypes in linguistic theory</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Vanparys, J. 1993. <i>The categorization of illocutionary verbs</i>. Ongepubliseerde doktorale proefskrif, Katholieke Universiteit van Leuven.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Wierzbicka, A. 1992. The search for universal semantic primitives. In Pütz (red.) 1992: 215-242.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Wittgenstein, L. 1953. <i>Philosophical investigations</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/A%2001%20%20Data%202016/C%20Persoonlik/G%20Navorsing/Taalkundeblog/Hoe%20beteken%20taal%20-%20'n%20kognitiewe%20perspektief%20%20-%20professorale%20intreerede.docx#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> ’n Verkorte weergawe van my professorale intreerede wat op 3 Mei 1995 by die RAU gelewer is.</span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-40978629169154438022016-11-25T11:44:00.001+02:002016-11-25T15:39:24.448+02:00The love frame in the Bible<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0cm; text-align: center;">
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<b style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #990000; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><b style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></span></b></div>
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<b style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #990000; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">This article appeared in:</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #990000;">Botha, Willem J. 1998. The love frame in the Bible. A cognitive linguistic analysis. In Biebuyck, Benjamin, René Dirven & John Ries (editors), <i>Faith and Fiction. Interdisciplinary Studies on the Interplay Between Metaphor and Religion</i>. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 55 – 82.</span><span style="color: red;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">The love frame in the Bible<sup>1</sup></span></span></b></h2>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Willem J. Botha</span></h2>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Abstract<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Although love is one of the most fundamental human emotions, its linguistic portrayal in different languages differs. This phenomenon relates to the fact that the conceptualization of love is very language/culture-specific. This article investigates the emotional nature of the concept of love by way of its linguistic portrayal in the 1983 Afrikaans translation of the Bible. In this regard we examine the instigation of love, the center of experience of love, its force, and the way in which it is metaphorically conceptualized. The investigation also takes into account that in Afrikaans the concept of love developed from a more objective construal </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê<i> ‘love have’ (to love) to a subjectivised construal </i>lief wees (vir)<i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love). Two successive Bible translations are compared to illustrate this phenomenon. Recent neurological findings in connection with the rational and emotional minds are also taken into consideration in order to answer questions relating to the basic level of experience of love, the emotional status of “Biblical love”, and the linguistic ways in which the Biblical portrayal of love links to our real world experience of this emotion.<span style="color: green;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The British writer<b> </b>Samuel Butler once related God, love and the devil metaphorically, when he said:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(1) “<i>God is Love – I dare say. But what a mischievous devil Love is</i>!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Although this quote suggests a degree of light-heartedness, it also indicates the complexities of the concept of love in the Bible. We find this phrase (“God is Love”) twice in the First Epistle of John:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(2) <i>Wie nie liefhet nie, het geen kennis van God nie, </i>want God is liefde (1 Johannes 4:8).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">He that loveth not knoweth not God; for <i>God is love</i> (1 John 4:8).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(3) <i>En ons ken die liefde wat God vir ons het, en ons glo daarin. </i>God is liefde<i>; wie in die liefde bly, bly in God en God bly in hom</i> (1 Johannes 4:16).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> And we have known and believed the love that God hath to us. <i>God is love</i>; and he that dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him (1 John 4:16).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">And nowhere in the (Afrikaans version of the) Bible we will find the phrase “Love is God”. An explanation for this fact is to be found in the conceptual blend within the metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1.1. Conceptual blending<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Fauconnier (1997) considers conceptual change, grammatical constructions, construal and rhetoric, metaphor and counterfactuals all to be linguistic manifestations of conceptual blending as a general cognitive operation. In addition, he mentions some of many functions of conceptual blending. For the purpose of this article we will refer to two: transfer of emotions, and conceptualization. In essence conceptual blending can be considered “a powerful on-line meaning construction process”, according to Fauconnier. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The meaning construction process within the metaphor “God is Love” is based on two abstract domains that are interrelated: one domain of experience, God (Input<sub>2</sub>), is to be understood in terms of a different domain of experience, love (Input<sub>1</sub>). In this regard the source domain, love, serves as an explanatory domain for the abstract concept of God.<sup>2</sup> Like God, love also indicates an abstract domain of experience. But our experience of love through all <i>the love as</i> metaphors gives us a clearer understanding of love than of God. Compare for instance the <i>love as journey</i> metaphor (Lakoff, 1990: 47-51), <i>love is a collaborative work of art</i> metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 139-146); etc.; also compare the following definitions of the word <i>love</i>, listed in the<i> American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i>, which suggest a variety of experiences encapsulated in the word <i>love</i>: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(4) 1. A deep, tender, ineffable feeling of affection and solicitude toward a person, such as that arising from kinship, recognition of attractive qualities, or a sense of underlying oneness. 2. A feeling of intense desire and attraction toward a person with whom one is disposed to make a pair; the emotion of sex and romance. 3. a. Sexual passion. b. Sexual intercourse. c. A love affair. 4. An intense emotional attachment, as for a pet or treasured object. 5. A person who is the object of deep or intense affection or attraction; beloved. Often used as a term of endearment. 6. An expression of one’s affection: <i>Send him my love.</i> 7. a. A strong predilection or enthusiasm: <i>a love of language.</i> b. The object of such an enthusiasm: <i>The outdoors is her greatest love.</i> 8. Love. <i>Mythology.</i> Eros or Cupid. 9. Often Love. <i>Theology.</i> Charity. 10. Love. <i>Christian Science.</i> God.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The love metaphors, love definitions, and other cognitive (and emotional) experiences of love we have access to, richly contribute to the emergent structure (the blend) from Input<sub>1</sub>. And on account of the fact that the Bible elucidates God, a more limited experience of God is presupposed. Consequently, the conceptual integration of God and love results in a clearer understanding of God, and not the other way round: we actually have more “cognitive knowledge” about love than about God.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The definitions in (4) also illustrate that, on a descriptive level, the conceptual content of <i>love</i> is associated with (blends with) the conceptual content of words like <i>affection</i>, <i>attachment</i>, <i>attraction</i>, <i>desire</i>, <i>endearment</i>, <i>enthusiasm</i>, <i>feeling</i>, <i>predilection</i> and <i>solicitude</i>. This phenomenon relates to what Goleman (1996: 289) calls members of the family, in which case he postulates the following candidates: <i>acceptance</i>, <i>adoration</i>, <i>affinity</i>, <i>agape</i>, <i>devotion</i>, <i>friendliness</i>, <i>infatuation</i>, <i>kindness</i>, <i>trust</i>. Consequently, the hyponyms (the members of the family) include the concept of love within their meanings. On a synonym level, it also illustrates that <i>love</i> acts as a blending feature for its hyponyms. But, in relation to other “positive” emotions, like enjoyment, the hyponyms can establish blends between superordinate categories of “basic”<sup>3</sup> emotions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> Furthermore, the complex nature of the meaning of the word <i>love</i> also evolves from its intricate cognitive relationship to the concept <i>emotion</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1.2. Love as an emotion<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">We have to distinguish between a conceptual and a behavioral experience of the emotion of love. This distinction relates to a differentiation that is being made between the rational and the emotional mind.<sup>4</sup> The rational mind consists of the “higher, uniquely human brain areas, associated with the cerebral cortex, which permits advanced reasoning and planning” (<i>Reader’s Digest</i>, 1990: 84), while the emotional mind is situated in the limbic system, “the ‘lower’ or ‘animal’ parts of the brain (mainly involved with instincts, drives, and automatic processes)” (<i>Reader’s Digest</i>, 1990: 84). Although the neurologist Paul MacLean introduced the idea of the limbic system as the brain’s emotional center (compare Goleman, 1996: 312), recent discoveries made by people like LeDoux,<sup>5</sup> revealed that circuits linking parts of the brain, like the prefrontal lobes, to the amygdala – an almond-shaped bulge above the hippocampus, “the part of the brain that processes fear and other emotion” (<i>Time</i>, 1997: 52) – are more directly involved in emotions (Goleman, 1996: 312).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">On account of recent findings, Goleman (1996: 291-296) contrasts the emotional with the rational mind. Without going into detail, we will mention a few distinctive features:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;">§<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">While the emotional mind reacts far quicker than the rational mind, some emotions follow from thoughts/cognition. In this regard it is postulated in <i>ABC’s of the Human Mind</i> that “the limbic area” (more specifically: the amygdala) “seems to act as a switchboard where emotional power is imparted to ideas, and reason tempers drives and emotions. In this complex interaction, the energizing force can be either an idea, a memory, a sensation, or any kind of stimulus, external or internal” (1990: 84). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;">§<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The emotional mind fixes its logic firmly on association, “(t)hat is why similes, metaphors, and images speak directly to the emotional mind” (Goleman, 1996: 294).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;">§<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">“The emotional mind … takes its beliefs to be absolutely true, and so discounts any evidence to the contrary” (Goleman, 1996: 295).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;">§<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">“(I)n the mechanics of emotion, each feeling has its own distinct repertoire of thought, reactions, even memories” (Goleman, 1996: 296).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">1.3. Points of departure</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">When we consider the <i>commandment</i> of love in the Bible (compare [5]), it seems that a directive (explicit performative) provides a “rational” stimulus for an emotion: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(5) <i>Ek gee julle ’n nuwe </i>gebod<i>: julle </i>moe<i>t mekaar </i>liefhê<i>. Soos Ek julle liefhet, moet julle mekaar ook liefhê</i> (Johannes 13:34).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">A new <i>commandment</i> I give unto you, That ye love one another; as I have loved you, that ye also love one another (John 13:34).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Therefore, we have to take the function of the rational mind into account when we scrutinize the linguistic portrayal of love in the Bible. In addition, if we compare (6), we have to recognize that the Afrikaans version of the Bible not only demarcates three minds: emotional (<i>hart</i> ‘heart’), spiritual (<i>siel</i> ‘soul’), and rational (<i>verstand</i> ‘mind’), but also links it with the commandment of love – compare the Afrikaans modal <i>moet</i> ‘shalt’:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(6) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jesus antwoord hom: Jy moet die Here jou God liefhê met jou hele </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">hart<i> en met jou hele </i>siel<i> en met jou hele </i>verstand (Mattheus 22:37).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Jesus said unto him, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind (Matthew 22:37).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In Deuteronomy 6:5, however, the word <i>verstand</i> ‘mind’ is replaced by </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">al jou krag</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> ‘all thy might’ – </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">therefore, the concept of force.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Furthermore, we have to acknowledge the fact that the Bible communicates specific speech acts, applicable, inter alia, to the relation of mankind to “the Lord thy God” and to “thy neighbour” (compare Matthew 22:37,38,39). In this regard the concept of love plays a major role: an illocutionary force is conveyed by a directive when the emotion (?) of love is ordained, for instance. If we compare example (5), and take into account “that a tendency to act is implicit in every emotion” (cf. Goleman, 1996: 6), then the assumed effect the utterance has on the listener (the perlocutionary act), implies that he/she should <i>experience love for …</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Closely linked to the directive, another principal speech act in connection with love relates to the description of love (also metaphorically): the representative, “a speech act which describes states or events in the world” (cf. Richards, Platt and Weber, 1985: 266). And within each metaphorical description conceptual blends emanate from conceptual integration. Accordingly, structure from different input mental spaces (based on experiences of states and events in the real world) is projected to a separate mental space: the blend. Consequently, background assumptions and anticipation regarding certain contexts are crucial for the understanding of the precise semantic value of the specific expressions that involve the concept of love. This constitutes a very complex comprehension problem in the case of the Bible. Not only does it involve certain doctrines, but also an intricate (culture-based) encapsulation of historical events that took place over a period of time; and different translations from distinct sources, which entail idiosyncratic formulations within each translation. As a result one has to adopt a certain viewpoint for a precise semantic examination of the relevant data in a specific translation. For the purpose of this investigation a cognitive approach has been been adopted, a “renewed cognitive thinking about language” that implies the conviction that “language is shaped by our perception of our ecological world, by congnition, by culture” (cf. Dirven, 1994: 5). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Consequently, this article deals with the Biblical conceptualization of the concept of love in an Afrikaans version of the Bible – on account of its linguistic portrayal. And in this regard one has to realize that although love is one of the most fundamental human emotions, the concept of love<i> </i>is very language/culture–specific; that it does not have the same semantic range in different languages (as will be elucidated in Table 1). Therefore we will not embark on a linguistic/cultural journey to the original Bible text, or to the transformation of the original concept by the Greek translation. We will show that the Afrikaans concept of love has developed in two successive Bible translations from a more objective construal <i>liefhê </i>‘love have’ (to love) to a subjectivised construal <i>lief wees (vir) </i>‘love be (for)’ (to love). Accordingly we will examine specific aspects of the love frame within the Afrikaans language/culture - “the knowledge network linking the multiple domains associated with” the linguistic form <i>love</i> (Taylor, 1995: 87). Some relevant questions that should be answered, are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;">§<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">How “basic” is the emotion of love? In this regard we refer to the basic level of categorization, the level at which “people conceptualize things as perceptual and functional gestalts”, the level at which “people normally talk about reality” (Taylor, 1995: 48,49).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;">§<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Does the Bible refer to love as an emotion? If it does, on which level of experience: neurological, psychological, or conceptual?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;">§<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Is “Biblical love” something different from our real world experience of love? Compare, for instance, the different words for <i>love </i>in pre-Biblical Greek, according to Gerhard Kittel in his <i>Theological Dictionary of the New Testament</i>: <i>eros</i> (infinitive form: <i>er</i></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman special g1"; font-size: 11.0pt;">ª</span></i><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">n</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">): to love in an erotic manner; <i>philos</i> (infinitive form: <i>philein</i>): love between friends; <i>agape</i> (infinitive form: <i>agapan</i>): love of God toward mankind.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">To answer these, and other relevant questions, we will investigate the linguistic portrayal of love in an Afrikaans version of the Bible - in view of its instigation, the center of experience of love, its force, and the way in which it is metaphorically conceptualized. Recent neurological findings in connection with the rational and emotional minds will be taken into consideration. We will first of all deal with the Afrikaans verbs used for the experience of love, and its portrayal. Within the context of the Bible, as it is the case in everyday life, we have to look at the ways in which love is acquired. And in this respect the (deictic) center of the experiencer of love is important. We will also deal with the exertion of force in relation to love, and its Biblical portrayal. Lastly, we will look at the metaphorical conceptualization of love in the Bible. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">2.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The verb <i>to love</i> in Afrikaans<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In English the verb <i>to love</i> functions as a non-phrasal verb, as the verb <i>lieben</i> is used in German, although German also has <i>lieb haben</i>; compare:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(7) <i>Da sandten die Schwestern zu Jesus und ließen ihm sagen: Herr, siehe, dein Freund, den du </i>lieb hast<i>, ist krank</i> (John 11:3).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Therefore his sisters sent unto him, saying, Lord, behold, he whom thou <i>lovest</i> is sick (John 11:3).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In Afrikaans, by contrast, the act of love is expressed by a phrasal verb: the stative verbs<i> het</i> ‘to have’,<sup>6</sup> or <i>wees</i> (‘to be’), linked with the ‘adjectival’ predicate<sup>7</sup> <i>lief</i>. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Compare:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(10) <i>Soos die Vader My </i>liefhet<i>, </i>het<b><i> </i></b><i>Ek julle ook </i>lief<i>. Julle moet in my liefde bly</i> (Johannes 15:9). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">As the Father hath <i>loved</i> me, so have I <i>loved</i> you: continue ye in my love (John 15:9).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(11) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Die susters het iemand na Jesus toe gestuur om te sê: “Here, hy </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">VIR<i> wie U</i> lief is<i>, is siek.”</i> (Johannes 11:3).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> Therefore his sisters sent unto him, saying, Lord, behold, he whom thou <i>lovest</i> is sick (John 11:3).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">2.1. The verb </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê<i> ‘love have’ (to love)<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In <i>Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal</i> the meaning of <i>liefhê </i>‘love have’ (to love) is described as “(l)iefde <i>besit</i> of <i>koester vir</i>” ‘love possess or cherish for’. If we overlook the preposition <i>vir</i> (‘for’) for the moment, then the definition suggests that the experience of love is a possession (compare <i>besit</i> ‘own’), which reminds of the metaphor <i>experiences are possessions </i>(cf. Lakoff, 1990: 63,64). This relates to the rudimentary meaning of<i> het</i> ‘to have’, according to <i>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal</i>: “in” or “met de hand gevat houden” ‘to hold in or with the hand’, consequently having the literal meaning: ‘grasp/grip with the hand’ - and, as a result, the concept of ‘possession’ developed. However, the meaning of <i>het</i> ‘to have’ was constrained gradually, to such an extent that some usages of the verb occur where the verb only designates a relation between a subject and an object, and not between an owner and a distinct object. Ultimately this gradual constraint of the meaning of <i>het</i> ‘to have’ resulted in the development of the auxiliary, according to <i>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> Against this background the question arises whether the category of <i>het</i> ‘to have’ has a strict radial structure, where “there is a central case and conventionalized variations on it which cannot be predicted by general rules” … “and have to be learned” (Lakoff, 1987: 84). Consider the relation between <i>kennis besit</i> ‘knowledge own’ and <i>liefde hê</i> ‘love has’ in 1 Corinthians 13: 2 in the Afrikaans version of the Bible, but not in the English translation:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(12) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Al het ek die gawe van profesie en ken ek al die geheimenisse en </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">besit<i> ek al die </i>kennis<i>, en al het ek al die geloof om berge te versit, maar ek </i>het<i> geen </i>liefde<i> nie, dan is ek niks</i> (1 Korinthiërs 13: 2).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (1 Corinthians 13:2).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">And we have to consider it in relation to the fact that <i>love can be given</i>, as it is formulated in <i>The Song of Songs</i>, both in the Afrikaans and English versions:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(13) <i>Daar sal ek </i>my liefde<i> vir jou </i>gee (Hooglied 7: 12).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(T)here will I <i>give </i>thee <i>my loves</i> (The Song of Songs 7: 12).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">But when we compare example (14) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(14) <i>Die man </i>het<i>/ </i>besit<i> ’n motor</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">to examples (15) to (20), it is obvious that the verb <i>het</i> ‘to have’ cannot be replaced by <i>besit </i>‘possess’ - in examples (15) to (20): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(15) <i>Die man </i>het<i>/ </i>dra<i>/ *</i>besit<i> ’n slegte humeur</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">‘The man <i>has/</i> <i>wears/</i> *<i>possesses</i> a bad temper.’<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(16) <i>Die man </i>het<i>/ </i>ervaar<i>/ *</i>besit<i> griep</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(17) <i>Die man </i>het<i>/ ervaar/ </i>geniet<i>/ *</i>besit<i> goeie gesondheid</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> ‘The man </span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">has/</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> </span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">experiences/</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> </span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">enjoys</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">/ *</span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">possesses</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> good health.’</span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(18) <i>Die man </i>het<i>/ </i>ly aan<i>/ *</i>besit<i> geheueverlies</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> ‘The man </span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">has/</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> </span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">suffers/</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> *</span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">possesses</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> amnesia/ loss of memory.’</span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(19) a. <i>Die man </i>het<i>/</i> is<i>/ *</i>besit<i> dors/ lief/ honger/ spyt<span style="text-transform: uppercase;">/</span></i> ens.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> ‘The man </span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">has/</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> </span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">is/</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> *</span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">possesses</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> thirst(y)/ love/ hungry/ sorry</span><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt; text-transform: uppercase;">/ </span><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">etc.’</span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(20) <i>Die man </i>het<i>/ *</i>besit<i> (die vrou) lief</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> ‘The man *</span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">has</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">/ *</span><i style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">possesses</i><span style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"> (the woman) love.’</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; text-indent: 14.2pt;"> The man loves (the woman).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In example (14) <i>het </i>‘to have’ basically refers to “physical possession”, therefore ownership (its prototypical meaning). Taylor (1995: 202,203) distinguishes a whole constellation of properties which constitutes prototypical possession: “the possessor is a specific human being”; “the possessed is a specific concrete thing”; “the relation is an exclusive one”; “the possessor has the right to make use of the possessed”; “the possessor’s rights over the possessed are invested in him in virtue of a transaction”; “the possessor is responsible for the possessed”; “possessor and possessed need to be in close spatial proximity”; and “the relation of possession is a long-term one”. Lyons (1968: 391) has doubts about the relationship between <i>have</i>-sentences and possessive phrases. Langacker (1990: 30) mentions the use of possessive expressions to indicate body parts and kinship relations, and “very much doubt that we understand these relationships metaphorically in terms of ownership”. Taylor (1995: 203) also supports the view that many other kinds of relationships between entities can be encoded by the possessive construction. Examples (15) to (18) are representations of such different relationships. Contrary to love, which can be given (compare [13]), the object noun phrases in (15) to (18) cannot be given: <i>’n slegte humeur</i> ‘a bad temper’, <i>griep</i> ‘influenza’, <i>goeie gesondheid</i> ‘good health’, and <i>geheueverlies</i> ‘amnesia’. And this also applies to <i>dors</i> ‘thirst’, <i>honger</i> ‘hungry’, and <i>spyt</i> ‘sorry’ in (19a). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Although extension of the meaning of prototypical possession (ownership) results in a reduction of the concept of “physical possession” – compare examples (15) to (18) - it does not apply in the same degree to <i>het </i>‘to have’ in relation to <i>lief</i> ‘love’. Example (19a) portrays the blending between “possession” (the verb <i>het</i> ‘to have’) and experience (the verb <i>wees</i> ‘to be’) – but in this case in combination with both <i>lief</i> ‘love’ and <i>dors</i> ‘thirst’, <i>honger</i> ‘hungry’, and <i>spyt</i> ‘sorry’. The verb <i>wees </i>‘to be’, in example (19a), can be paraphrased by <i>ervaar</i> ‘experience’; compare (21): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(21) D<i>ie man </i>ervaar<i> dors/ liefde/ honger/ spyt.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The man <i>experiences</i> thirst/ love/ hunger/ regret.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">And the verb <i>ervaar</i> ‘experience’ has a very close relationship with words of emotion. We recognize this when we look at the lexical definition of the word <i>ervaar</i> ‘experience’ in <i>Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal</i>, for instance: <i>(s)mart, pyn, geluk, ontgogeling, vriendskap, vrees ervaar</i> ‘sorrow, pain, disenchantment, friendship, fear experience’. And this links with the claim of Lakoff (1990: 63) that <i>experiences are possessions</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Therefore, in my view, <i>het</i> ‘to have’ in combination with <i>lief</i> ‘love’, would be conceptualized (in Afrikaans) on a possession continuum nearer to the central category.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">2.2. The verbal expression </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees (vir)<i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love)<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">If we look at example (19a) again, but without the verbs <i>het</i> ‘have’ and <i>besit</i> ‘possess’, quoted as (19b),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(19) b. <i>Die man </i>is<i> dors/ lief/ honger/ spyt<span style="text-transform: uppercase;">/</span></i> ens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">‘The man <i>is</i> thirst(y)/ love/ hungry/ sorry<span style="text-transform: uppercase;">/ </span>etc.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">then we recognize that <i>wees </i>‘to be’ links with the adjectives <i>dors</i> ‘thirsty’,<i> lief</i> ‘love’(?), <i>honger</i> ‘hungry’,<i> spyt</i> ‘sorry’, in contrast with <i>ervaar</i> ‘experience’ (in example [21]) which links with nouns. Therefore, we can state that in these examples <i>wees</i> ‘to be’ selects adjectives, while <i>ervaar</i> ‘experience’ selects nouns, and not the other way round. Example (19b) also designates the predicative uses of the verb <i>wees</i> ‘to be’, according to Lyons (1968: 389). In this regard he distinguishes four functions of the verb <i>wees</i> ‘to be’: <i>existential</i>, <i>identifying</i> (or <i>equative</i>), <i>locative</i>, and <i>attributive</i>. If we consider the fact that adjectives designate properties (therefore: attributes), we can infer that <i>wees </i>‘to be’, in example (19b), has a attributive function. But if we consider the fact that only <i>honger</i> ‘hungry’ can be used as an attributive adjective (<i>die honger man</i> ‘the hungry man’, but not <sup>*</sup><i>die dors man</i> ‘the thirsty man’, <sup>*</sup><i>die spyt man</i> ‘the sorry man’, and <sup>*</sup><i>die lief man</i> ‘the love man’), then it becomes clear that attribution is not a clear-cut function. And if we consider the fact that the grammatical structure <i>lief (vir X)</i> ‘love (for X)’ operates on a constituent level, which also implies conceptual grouping (cf. Langacker, 1997: 14-21), then an exclusive attribution function for the verb <i>wees </i>‘to be’ (in these structures) becomes doubtful. Could it not be that the function of <i>wees</i> ‘to be’, in expressions like (19b), lies on a continuum somewhere between <i>existence </i>and <i>attribution</i>? It looks like a possibility when we consider paraphrased examples in which the verb <i>bestaan</i> ‘exist’ occurs – examples that refer to love and other emotions as <i>’n gevoel</i> ‘a feeling’ – an explanatory tendency found in most dictionaries, regarding the explanation of specific emotions; compare (22):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(22) <i>Daar </i>bestaan ’n gevoel<i> van liefde vir X / angs/ haat/ opgewondeheid/ ens. by hom</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> He is experiencing a feeling of love/ fear/ hatred/ excitement/ etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The Afrikaans expression in (22) clearly explicates an existential structure. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">2.3. The conceptual blend: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt;">liefhê</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> ‘love have’ (to love) and </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt;">lief wees (vir)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> ‘love be (for)’ (to love)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In the previous sections we have argued that (i) an element of possession does occur in the expression <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love); and that (ii) <i>lief wees (vir) </i>‘love be (for)’ (to love) involves a blend between <i>existence </i>and <i>attribution</i>. We have also mentioned the conceptual blend between “possession” (the verb <i>het</i> ‘to have’) and experience (the verb <i>wees</i> ‘to be’). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">These views link with Jackendoff’s (1990: 193) appraisal that the alienable possessive field acts as a conceptual parallel to the spatial field: therefore “<i>‘y has/possesses x</i>’ is the conceptual parallel to the spatial ‘<i>x is at y</i>’” – compare Jackendoff (1990: 192). In this regard, according to Jackendoff (1990: 192), possession “plays the role that location does in the spatial field, as the central element of a group of [STATE] and [EVENT] concepts”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">If we consider the examples in Afrikaans in which <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) and <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) are interchangeable (compare example [23], for instance), then we can hypothesize a metaphor to the effect that <i>possession is existence</i>, linking with <i>existence is location here </i>(for Afrikaans): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(23) <i>As die slaaf egter uitdruklik sou sê: ‘Ek </i>is lief vir<i> my eienaar en </i>vir<i> my vrou en my kinders</i> (Eksodus 21:5) - 1983 translation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> <i>Maar as die slaaf reguit sê: ‘Ek </i>het <i>my heer, my vrou en my kinders </i>lief<i>’</i> (Eksodus 21:5) - 1933 translation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> And if the servant shall plainly say, I <i>love</i> my master, my wife, and my children (Exodus 21:5).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">We can only hypothesize such a metaphor if we accept that to experience love, implies that love is in some way “possessed” (as was argued in section 2.1) - that love “exists” at the location of the possessor. But in this respect the experience of love relates to experiences such as the following in Afrikaans - where <i>to have</i> and <i>to be</i> are interchangeable:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(24) <i>Ek het/ is verkoue.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">‘I have/ am cold.’<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> I have a cold.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Jackendoff (1990: 191) points out that the possession pattern in a construal like (24) entails that you can “have one, get one, give yours to someone else”. But this pattern does not completely apply to the examples in (25), where one can <i>get</i> it, <i>have</i> it - but not <i>give</i> it, as was also pointed out in section 2.1:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(25) <i>Ek het/ is honger/ dors/ spyt/ skaam/ lus/ vaak.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">‘I have/ am hungry/ thirsty/ sorry/ ashamed/ desire/ drowsy.’<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The conceptual blend beween <i>het</i> ‘to have’ and <i>wees</i> ‘to be’ in (25) probably suggests the influence of both Dutch and English on Afrikaans.<sup>8</sup> Compare the Dutch and English versions represented in (26) and (27) respectively:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(26) <i>Ik heb honger/ dorst/ spijt/ schaamte?/ lust?/ vaak.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(27) I am hungry/ thirsty/ sorry/ ashamed/ desire/ drowsy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In both instances (<i>hebben </i>+ adjective and <i>to be</i> + adjective) the verbs are interchangeable with <i>voelen</i>/<i>gevoelen</i> and <i>to feel</i>, respectively, suggesting experience as such. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> With regard to the previous discussion, we will now focus on the occurrence of the expression of love by way of the verbal expression <i>lief wees (vir) </i>‘love be (for)’ (to love) in the 1983 Afrikaans translation. Although <i>lief wees </i>‘love be’ requires an obligatory prepositional phrase with the preposition <i>vir</i> ‘for’, some examples seem to lack it, for instance (28a):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(28) a. <i>Hulle is lief </i>om van My af weg te dwaal (Jeremia 14:10).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">‘They are love to from me away to wander.’<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Thus have they <i>loved</i> to wander (Jeremiah 14:10).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Example (28a) is actually the reduced form of (28b), in which case <i>daarvoor</i> ‘for it’ links the finite complement clause (object clause) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">om van My af weg te dwaal</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> ‘</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">to from me away to wander’:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(28) b. </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Hulle is lief </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(daarvoor < vir dit)<i> om van My af weg te dwaal.</i></span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt;">‘They are love (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">for it</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt;">) to from me away to wander.’<o:p></o:p></span></span></h5>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The 1983 Afrikaans translation of the Bible reveals at least 27 instances in which the experience of love is explicated by the verbal expression <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love), instead of <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love), or other phrasal expressions, like <i>Só het hulle daarvan gehou</i> (Isaiah 66:3), from the 1933 Afrikaans translation, or the Dutch <i>indien gij geen behagen in haar hebt</i> (Deuteronomy 21:14); or the English <i>he had delight in Jacob’s daughter</i> (Genesis 34:19), or the German <i>denn er hatte Lust am Ackerbau</i> (2 Chronicles 26:10). Table 1 gives an account of the variables for <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) in different translations. The applicable verses are identified in Table 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Table 1. <i>Variations of the verbal expression </i>lief wees (vir)<i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) in different translations/ Bibles</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Bible verse<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Afrikaans translation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1983<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Afrikaans translation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1933<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1892<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1951<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1994<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1975<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Genesis 34:19<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lief wees<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">liefhebben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Exodus 21:5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieb haben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Deuteronomy 21:14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Deuteronomy 28:56<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1 Samuel 18:16<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1 Samuel 18:22<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1 Kings 11:1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">2 Chronicles 26:10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Proverbs 9:8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieben <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Proverbs 18:21<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieben <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Proverbs 20:13<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Proverbs 21:17<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Isaiah 66:3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Jeremiah 8:2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<tr><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 79.4pt;" valign="top" width="159"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Jeremiah 14:10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Ezekiel 16:37<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lieben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Ezekiel 24:21<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Hosea 3:1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Malachi 2:11<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">lieb haben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Luke 16:14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">John 11:3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lieb haben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">John 13:23<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lieb haben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">John 19:26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 55.3pt;" valign="top" width="111"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.1pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 59.55pt;" valign="top" width="119"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lieb haben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">John 20:2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lieb haben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">John 21:7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lieb haben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">John 21:20<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhebben</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">love</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lieb haben</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Titus 1:8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">lief wees</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">liefhê</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">liefhebben<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">phrasal expression<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Three points are stressed, considering the data in Table 1:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The verbal expression <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) from the 1983 Afrikaans translation encapsulates different experiences of love, amongst others: love for an undesignated person (compare Proverbs 9:8); love of a man for a woman (compare Genesis 34:19); love of a woman for a man (compare Deuteronomy 28:56); love for a collective object (compare Exodus 21:5); love from a collective subject (compare 1 Samuel 18:22); love for a certain kind of behavior (compare Proverbs 18:21); love for inanimate objects (compare Isaiah 66:3); love for an abstract object (compare Malachi 2:11); love of Jesus for … (compare John 11:3); love for a certain attribute of behavior (compare Titus 1:8). From these examples we can infer that <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) covers a wider experiential range of love than <i>liefhê </i>‘love have’ (to love), especially when we compare the expression of love in these examples to the expression of love in the First Epistle of John, in which case love refers to a relationship between God and mankind, and a relationship between people. Also compare (29) and (30) in this respect:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(29) <i>Hy </i>is lief daarvoor<i> om te stap.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">‘He is love for that to walk.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">He loves to walk. / He is fond of walking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> But not:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(30) <sup>*</sup><i>Hy </i>het<i> stap </i>lief<i>.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> ‘He has walking love.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> He loves to walk. / He is fond of walking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">2. The verbal expression <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) does not appear in the 1933 Afrikaans translation at all. The change from <i>liefhê </i>‘love have’ (to love) to <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) in the specific examples clearly illustrates a conceptual change that took place/is taking place in Afrikaans.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The development of <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) to <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) does not only result from a language contact influence of Dutch and English as such: therefore <i>liefhebben</i> ‘love have’ (to love) from Dutch to <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) in Afrikaans; and then to <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) in Afrikaans in accordance with the </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">to be</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> + adjective constructions in English, which also suggest a certain kind of feeling like the <i>to be</i> + <i>love</i>; compare (25), (26), and (27) again:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(25) <i>Ek het/ is honger/ dors/ spyt/ skaam/ lus/ vaak.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">‘I have/ am hungry/ thirsty/ sorry/ ashamed/ desire/ drowsy.’<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(26) <i>Ik heb honger/ dorst/ spijt/ schaamte?/ lust?/ vaak.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(27) I am hungry/ thirsty/ sorry/ ashamed/ *desire/ drowsy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">This process rather represents a process of grammaticization - but a process of grammaticization which involves subjectification. According to </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Langacker (1990: 16) such a grammaticization process implies a general form of semantic change. As an element becomes grammaticized, it moves along a continuum that extends from <i>lexical</i> to <i>grammatical</i>. As the conceptualizer becomes cognitively less aware of the lexical content of an element (owing to the reduction of conceptual import), the construal of the element becomes <i>maximally subjective</i> (grammaticized). From this we can infer that the experience of love in Afrikaans cognitively also became a [STATE] concept - like the <i>hungry/</i> <i>thirsty/</i> <i>sorry/</i> <i>ashamed/ </i>desire<i>/</i> <i>drowsy</i> concepts are [STATE] concepts. Although one could be very conscious of one’s hunger, thirst, regret, shame, drowsiness, and cold - compare (25) - in normal circumstances one would carry on with another action if no possibility exists to counter these experiences for the moment - to such an extent that the specific experience could fade in the background of other experiences. Langacker (1990: 7) uses the example of glasses to illustrate these kinds of construals. If one takes off one’s glasses and looks at them to examine them, then the construal of the glasses is maximally objective. On the other hand, when one wears them to examine some other object, so that they fade from conscious awareness, then the construal of the glasses becomes maximally subjective. This example can be extended to refer to the simple use of glasses as such, because one is far-sighted or near-sighted (or both). The moment you have to go without your glasses, you not only become aware of the lack of glasses, but also of the vision deficiency (personal <i>attribute</i>, or the “existence” of a deficiency) you have. But we have to bear in mind that from one instance to another the intensity of the experience may differ. And, depending on that, Afrikaans allows a continuum for conceptual import in this regard via the selection of <i>het</i> ‘to have’ and <i>wees</i> ‘to be’, especially for the experience of love. Accordingly, Langacker (1990: 7) postulates that “<i>subjectivity</i>/<i>objectivity</i> is often variable or a matter of degree”. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">3. Although<b> </b><i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) could be replaced by <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) in every instance (except in examples in which <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ [to love] occurs without an object: </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Wie nie liefhet nie, het geen kennis van God nie.</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> He that loveth not knoweth not God; for God is love [1 John 4:8]), o</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">nly twenty-seven examples of <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) were found in the 1983 translation of the Afrikaans version of the Bible, and only eight in the New Testament. In most instances, like the following example, <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) could easily be replaced by <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love), without serious grammatical implications; compare (31a) and (31b):<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(31) a. </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jy moet die Here jou God liefhê met jou hele hart en met jou hele siel en met jou hele verstand. Dit is die grootste en die eerste gebod. En die tweede, wat hiermee gelyk staan, is: Jy moet jou naaste liefhê soos jouself</span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (Mattheus 22:37,38,39).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This is the first and great commandment. And the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself (Matthew 22:37,38,39).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(31) b. </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jy moet </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">vir<i> die Here jou God </i>lief wees<i> met jou hele hart … Jy moet </i>vir<i> jou naaste </i>lief wees<i> soos vir jouself</i>.</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">‘Thou shalt <i>for</i> the Lord thy God <i>love be</i> with all thy heart … Thou shalt <i>for</i> thy neighbour <i>love be</i> as for thyself.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The selection of <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) would have put the experience of love in the subconscious mind, “on the periphery of awareness” (cf. Harriman, 1961: 316) - subjectivized as a [STATE] concept (compare [31b]). But in example (31a) <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) explicates the commandment of love (implicit performative), therefore love as a force. Compare the modal <i>moet</i> ‘shalt’, which indicates a force over which the addressee has no control (also compare section 5 for a discussion of the force of love). We can infer that the use of <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love), instead of <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love), indicates a more objectivized experience of love, which in the context of the Bible is a crucial matter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">3. The acquisition of love<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Before love can be executed, the experience/feeling of love has to be instigated. And if one considers that in various instances in the Bible the act of love is ordained, compare (31a), especially by the use of the modal <i>moet</i> ‘shalt’, the question arises:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Can one execute a command of love if love is not being initiated somehow? Considering the Bible, can a view like the following be justified? “Not just love, but our angers and fears, as well, sweep over us, seeming to happen <i>to</i> us rather than being our choice” (Goleman, 1996: 293); or do we have to look for an answer in the notion that there are “quick and slow paths to emotion – one through immediate perception and the other through reflective thought” (Goleman, 1996: 293). What does the Bible linguistically reveal about the neurological, psychological, and conceptual experience of love – also about these different viewpoints?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In section 3.1 we have pointed out that, according to Goleman (1996: 6), a tendency to act is implicit in every emotion. In Afrikaans the act of love is expressed by the verbal constructions <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) and <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love). And in Afrikaans the verbs designating the inducement of love, are <i>word</i> ‘become’ and <i>kry </i>‘get’, like in:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(32) <i>X word lief vir Y</i>.<i></i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">‘X becomes love for Y’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">X falls in love with/ grows fond of Y.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(33) <i>X kry Y lief</i> .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">‘X gets Y love’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">X <i>falls in love</i> with/ <i>grows fond</i> of Y.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Both <i>lief word</i> ‘love become’ (to become enamoured) and <i>liefkry</i> ‘love get’ (to get enamoured) suggest a process – not a sudden event – contrary to the English <i>fall in love</i>, although <i>grow fond of</i> also designates a process. I only found <i>liefkry</i> ‘love get’ (to get enamoured) in the Afrikaans version of the Bible (compare Genesis 34:3; Numbers 14:31; Deuteronomy 21:11; and 1 Thessalonians 2:8). The contexts in which <i>liefkry </i>‘love get’ (to get enamoured) was found, do not correlate with the context of (31a) – love for “the Lord thy God” and love for “thy neighbour”. I found a few examples in which metaphors were used to indicate the inducement of love/ the stimulus for love. The following discussion, as throughout this article, focuses on the Afrikaans version of the Bible, and is not, necessarily, appropriate for other translations, as one will see when one compares it with the <i>King James Version</i>. But the purpose of this article is not to compare different translations as such. Contrasts are only pointed out in certain instances to aid the examination of Afrikaans data. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In example (34) the deictic verb <i>kom</i> ‘come’ is used, suggesting a movement of an entity (love) that is taking place in space, originating in the Spirit, and terminating in (a) recipient(s). Contrary to the deictic verb <i>gaan</i> ‘go’, the deictic <i>kom</i> ‘come’ always implies termination (in the deictic center - or a place with which the speaker associates him-/herself, involving the identity of the speaker, and the place and time of the utterance) - cf. Botha (1980: 77-99). Love is, therefore, portrayed as a moving entity, coming from a source (the Spirit), moving along a path, and terminating in a goal (the speaker). </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Compare (34):<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(34) <i>Ek versoek julle dan dringend, broers, in die Naam van ons Here Jesus Christus en op grond </i>van die liefde wat van die Heilige Gees kom<i>: Stry saam met my deur vir my te bid</i></span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (Romeine 15:30).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(N)ow I beseech you, brethren, for the Lord Jesus Christ’s sake, and <i>for the love of the Spirit</i>, that ye strive together with me in your prayers to God for me (Romans 15:30).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The construal in (34) actually suggests love as a stimulus for <i>stryd</i> ‘struggle’ (strive). But if we relate it to (35), in which case the love of Christ acts as a force (<i>dring</i> ‘constrain’), and especially (36), where a passive construction is used to indicate explicitly that the Spirit acts as the agent (stimulus) for the inducement of love (by selection of the verb <i>wek</i> ‘awaken’), then an ambiguous reading of (34) seems possible: the Spirit initiates love, also by giving love. In example (37) it is also explicitly stated that the Spirit of God fills (<i>vul</i>) us with love, and other qualities. And in this regard love becomes an attribute of mankind (compare section 2.2).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(35) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Die liefde van Christus dring ons<i>, omdat ons tot die insig gekom het dat een vir almal gesterwe het, en dit beteken dat almal gesterwe het</i> (2 Korintiërs 5:14).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">For the love of Christ constraineth</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> us; because we thus judge, that if one died for all, then were all dead (2 Corinthians 5:14).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(36) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Dit is ook hy wat ons vertel het van </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">die liefde wat deur die Gees in julle gewek is</span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></i><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(Kolossense 1:8).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Who also <i>declared unto us your love in the Spirit</i> (Colossians 1:8).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(37) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Die Gees wat God<i> ons gegee het, maak ons immers nie lafhartig nie, maar </i>vul ons met <i>krag en</i> liefde<i> en selfbeheersing</i> (2 Timoteus 1:7).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">For God hath not given us the spirit of fear; but of power, and of love, and of a sound mind (2 Timothy 1:7).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">These examples are not very explicit in stating whether the acquisition of love is a sudden happening or a gradual process, although the verb <i>wek</i> ‘awaken’ could suggest an instantaneous event, while <i>vul</i> ‘fill’ could signify a sequential process. Consequently, love can be initiated via the emotional mind, or its instigation can come via the rational mind, according to Goleman’s (1996) explanation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">4. The (deictic) center of love<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">With reference to the Afrikaans verbal expression <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) we have argued that the expression of love in Afrikaans links with an element of possession (compare section 2.1). Also compare the many examples in which the noun <i>liefde</i> ‘love’ is used in a possessive construction. Out of 313 examples in which the noun <i>liefde</i> ‘love’ occurs, 124 instances are possessive constructions – almost 40%.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">And with reference to the Afrikaans verbal expression <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) we postulated that the concept of possession blends with the concept of existence/ attribution (compare section 2.2). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> We can furthermore mention Lakoff’s (1990: 62) view that in English there is a metaphor “to the effect that <i>existence is location here</i>; <i>nonexistence is location away</i>”, and that “existence is metaphorized as a bounded area around where we are”, acknowledging the deictic center (<i>here</i>) as the domain of existence. To some extent this view links with the intrinsic notion of deixis, based on a distinction drawn between an intrinsic deictic point-of-orientation and an external deictic point-of-orientation (cf. Tanz, 1980: 6; Schwerdtfeger, 1982: 58,59). Relations to referents like people, cars, houses, etc. can be defined with regard to orientational attributes inherent to the specific reference objects, its permanent directional features; therefore, from an intrinsic deictic point-of-orientation. If we take the attribute nature of <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) into consideration, then the intrinsic deictic point-of-orientation could be considered to be enriched by attributes of love that is imposed on the ego from outside the deictic center.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Accordingly, love originates within the ego, owing to the incentive from outside the ego – according to examples (34) to (37). It is furthermore directed towards an entity outside the ego, or towards the ego itself (“thyself”), when “Thou shalt love thy neighbour <i>as thyself</i>” - compare example (31a). From this viewpoint the experience and expression of love relate to the intrinsic deictic point-of-orientation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In addition, the use of the directional preposition <i>vir</i> ‘for’ emphasizes the fact that the ego functions as deictic center of love in Afrikaans. In the case of <i>lief wees vir</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love) the preposition <i>vir</i> ‘for’ is obligatory, while with <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) its use is optional. In every instance where <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) is used, the preposition <i>vir</i> ‘for’ can be inserted. In this regard Ponelis (1979: 205) claims that the use with <i>vir</i> ‘for’ signifies more affect, and more explicitness. In this respect we can argue that <i>vir</i> ‘for’ <i>implies</i> the deictic center, if we take in consideration that, on a non-literal level, <i>vir</i> ‘for’ signifies direction, or alignment, according to Kempen (1984: 87). Alignment, or direction, only takes place from a certain vantage point – that of the deictic center. Therefore, without <i>vir</i> ‘for’ the ego’s involvement (within the deictic center) is partially reduced in the construal of love in expressions with <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love). Examples with <i>vir</i> ‘for’ are numerous in the Afrikaans version of the Bible. Compare examples (38) and (39) for instance:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(38) <i>As iemand sê: “Ek het God lief,” en hy haat sy broer, is hy ’n leuenaar; want wie sy broer, wat hy kan sien, nie liefhet nie, kan onmoontlik </i>vir<i> God </i>liefhê<i>, wat hy nie kan sien nie</i> (1 Johannes 4:20).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">If a man say, I love God, and hateth his brother, he is a liar: for he that loveth not his brother whom he hath seen, how can he love God whom he hath not seen? (1 John 4:20).<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(39) <i>En hierdie gebod het ons van Hom gekry: Wie </i>vir<i> God </i>liefhet<i>, moet ook sy broer </i>liefhê (1 Johannes 4:21).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> And this commandment have we from him, That he who loveth God love his brother also (1 John 4:21).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">5. The force of love <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The source of love exists within the ego. But its energy has to be activated. In this regard Goleman (1996: 6) states that “(a)ll emotions are, in essence, impulses to act” … “a tendency to act is implicit in every emotion.” And in the context of the Bible the Spirit of God acts as the originator of the energy of love – as was apparent in examples (34) to (37). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">As we have shown, one of the Afrikaans verbal expressions for love (<i>lief wees [vir]</i> ‘love be [for]’ [to love]) suggests that the force of love has direction, while in the case of <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) the indication of direction is optional. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Consequently, these directional adjuncts imply that the instigation of love exerts force as such. Under normal circumstances the force is directed from a point-of-orientation within the deictic center: the ego (vantage point). But in the context of the Bible a force from outside the ego (and deictic center, for that matter) is executed on the ego to <i>influence the direction </i>of the force of love: to “God” (Matthew 33:37), to “thy neighbour” (Matthew 5:43), to “your enemies” (Matthew 5:44), to “one another” (John 13:34), etc. In this regard the modal <i>moet</i> ‘shall’ in junction with <i>liefhê</i> ‘love have’ (to love) is used 36 times in the Afrikaans version of the Bible. Only in one instance <i>behoort</i> ‘ought’ is used. Therefore, in this example, the obligation to love is not that strong. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Compare:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(40) <i>Geliefdes, as dit is hoe God sy liefde aan ons bewys het, </i>behoort<i> ons mekaar ook lief te hê</i> (1 Johannes 4:11).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Beloved, if God so loved us, we <i>ought</i> also to love one another (1 John 4:11).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Interesting enough, in the <i>King James Version</i> the commandment of love is only accompanied by the modal <i>shalt</i> in 14 instances. Other kinds of speech acts function in the other corresponding verses: mostly implicit commands, and in a few cases invitations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The ego is subjected to an external force (formulated as a commandment) over which it has no control. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Compare: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(41) <i>Ek gee julle ’n nuwe </i>gebod<i>: julle </i>moet<i> mekaar </i>liefhê<i>. Soos Ek julle liefhet, </i>moet<i> julle mekaar ook </i>liefhê (Johannes 13:34).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">A new <i>commandment</i> I give unto you, That ye love one another; as I have loved you, that ye also love one another (John 13:34).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> But if we compare the following examples, it becomes obvious that the external force (the obligation to love) actually relates to an internal force that originates from knowledge. This knowledge involves different rational insights: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In example (42) the rational insight refers to an understanding of the meaning of the death of Jesus. It is suggested by the use of the verb <i>weet</i> (“perceive we”): <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(42) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Hiéraan weet ons wat liefde is: Jesus het sy lewe vir ons afgelê. Ons behoort ook ons lewens vir ons broers af te lê</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (1 Johannes 3:16).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Hereby perceive we the love of God, because he laid down his life for us: and we ought to lay down our lives for the brethren (1 John 3:16).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In example (43) the rational insight comprises an understanding of a promise to be a relative of God and to have knowledge of God. The promise is implied by the conditional clause <i>want liefde kom</i> … (“for love is …”); compare (43):<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(43) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Geliefdes, ons moet mekaar liefhê</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">, want liefde kom van God, en elkeen wat liefhet, is ’n kind van God en ken God (1 Johannes 4:7).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Beloved, let us love one another: <i>for love is of God; and every one that loveth is born of God, and knoweth God</i> (1 John 4:7).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In examples (44) and (45) an understanding of the possibility to be near God becomes the rational insight. The image schema of containment is metaphorized in clauses like </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">bly God in ons</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">God dwelleth in us”), </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">wie in die liefde bly, bly in God en God bly in hom</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">he that dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him”). The integration of container and contained suggests a blend with the proximity/distance image schema. Taylor (1996: 134) rightly posits that the “degree of emotional involvement and the possibility of mutual influence are understood in terms of proximity”. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Compare (44) and (45):<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(44) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Niemand het God nog ooit gesien nie, maar as ons mekaar liefhet, bly God </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">in<i> ons en het sy liefde </i>in<i> ons sy doel volkome bereik </i>(1 Johannes 4:12).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(N)o man hath seen God at any time. If we love one another, God dwelleth <i>in</i> us, and his love is perfected <i>in</i> us (1 John 4:12).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(45) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">En ons ken die liefde wat God vir ons het, en ons glo daarin. God is liefde; wie </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">in<i> die liefde bly, bly </i>in<i> God en God bly </i>in<i> hom</i> (1 Johannes 4:16).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> And we have known and believed the love that God hath to us. God is love; and he that dwelleth <i>in</i> love dwelleth <i>in</i> God, and God <i>in </i>him (1 John 4:16).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Examples (46) and (47) mention a knowledge of the counteraction of fear as a rational insight, explicated by the conditional clauses <i>want in hierdie wêreld lewe ons</i> … (“because as he is, so are … ”), and <i>(w)aar liefde is, is daar</i> … (“but perfect love casteth out fear”):<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(46) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Hiérin het die liefde sy doel volkome met ons bereik: ons het niks te vrees vir die oordeelsdag nie, want in hierdie wêreld lewe ons reeds deur die liefde net soos Jesus</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (1 Johannes 4:17).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Herein is our love made perfect, that we may have boldness in the day of judgment: because as he is, so are we in this world (1 John 4:17).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(47) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Waar liefde is, is daar geen vrees nie, maar volmaakte liefde verdryf vrees, want vrees verwag straf, en wie nog vrees, het nie volmaakte liefde nie</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (1 Johannes 4:18).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">There is no fear in love; but perfect love casteth out fear: because fear hath torment. He that feareth is not made perfect in love (1 John 4:18).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The relationship between an external and internal force relates to what Talmy (1985: 310) refers to as “a basic semantic configuration in language, the divided self.” The knowledge or understanding of the above-mentioned concepts within the ego (based on belief and faith) exerts a force on the energy of love to deviate it accordingly. Therefore, this force of deviation (impersonated by an external command) instigates the obligation. Goleman’s (1996: 293) view in this respect substantiates the above: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> Because it takes the rational mind a moment or two longer to register and respond than it does the emotional mind, the first “impulse” in an emotional situation is the heart’s, not the head’s. There is also a second kind of emotional reaction, slower than the quick-response, which simmers and brews first in our thoughts before it leads to feeling. This second pathway to triggering emotions is more deliberate, and we are typically quite aware of the thoughts that lead to it. In this kind of emotional reaction there is more extended appraisal; our thoughts – cognition – play the key role in determining what emotions will be roused. … In this slower sequence, more fully articulated thought precedes feeling. … More complicated emotions … follow this slower route. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">6. Prominent metaphors of love <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Johnson (1987:xiii) stresses the fact that embodied and imaginative structures of understanding are central mechanisms that enable us to grasp our world. These embodied and imaginative structures involve preconceptual image schemas, “so deeply grounded in common human experience that they constitute … universal prelinguistic cognitive structures” (Lakoff 1987, as paraphrased by Taylor, 1995: 135). He further maintains that a fairly small number of image schemas manifest themselves in metaphorical elaborations in many areas of experience – and “metaphor is not merely a linguistic mode of expression; rather, it is one of the chief cognitive structures by which we are able to have coherent, ordered experiences that we can reason about and make sense of”, according to Johnson (1987: xv). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">In the previous sections our focal point was the very essence of the nature of love, its neurological and conceptual (psychological) origin - as it is linguistically portrayed in an Afrikaans version of the Bible. But our understanding/conceptualization of love is also enriched by associated mental spaces based on image schemas. The acquisition of love, its deictic center, and the force exerted by love, all involve certain image schemas. We did, however, not point them out in detail in the relevant sections. Owing to a lack of space, an extensive examination is not possible within the limits of this discussion. Therefore we will only mention a few metaphorical delineations of love on account of the image schemas involved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">By virtue of the image schemas involved, love is metaphorically linked to different experiences in the Afrikaans version of the Bible. The most prominent ones are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Love is portrayed as a<i> possession</i> (throughout the Bible possessive noun phrases with <i>liefde</i> ‘love’ as noun are numerous). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Examples (44) and (45) illustrate the portrayal of love as a<i> containe</i>r. An explanation was given in the relevant section.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Example (44) also involves the metaphoric delineation of love as a<i> filler</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In section 5 a discussion was given of love as a<i> force</i>. Examples (34) to (37) embody its metaphorical portrayal. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Linked to the image schema of containment, the portrayal of love as<i> proximity</i> was discussed in the examination of examples (44) and (45).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Love is also portrayed as an<i> instrument</i>; compare for example the agentive clause </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">deur die liefde</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">by love”)<i> </i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">in example<i> </i></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(48):<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(48) <i>In Christus Jesus is dit nie van belang of jy besny is of nie. Al wat van belang is, is geloof wat </i>deur die liefde<i> tot dade oorgaan</i> (Galasiërs 5:6).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">For in Jesus Christ neither circumcision availeth any thing, nor uncircumcision; but faith which worketh <i>by love </i>(Galatians 5:6).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">But perhaps the most crucial metaphor in the Bible – one which links with force as such – is love as an<i> act</i>. Compare the use of the word <i>daad</i> (“deed”) in example (49):<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(49) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Liewe kinders, ons liefde moenie net woorde en lippetaal wees nie, maar </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">moet met die daad bewys word<i>, en dan in opregtheid</i> (1 Johannes 3:18).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">My little children, let us not love in word, neither in tongue; but <i>in deed</i> and in truth (1 John 3:18).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Yet, if we consider the Afrikaans verb <i>bewys </i>(“proof”) in (49), it becomes clear that the act presupposes a result. And within the context of the Bible, explicated by example (42), which we repeat, it becomes clear that the metaphor implies that the act extends to a sacrifice – in this case the highest sacrifice, namely one’s life: </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jesus het sy lewe vir ons afgelê</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">he laid down his life for us”). And this metaphor reveals itself throughout the Bible in many variations:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(42) </span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Hiéraan weet ons wat liefde is: Jesus het sy lewe vir ons afgelê. Ons behoort ook ons lewens vir ons broers af te lê</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> (1 Johannes 3:16).</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Hereby perceive we the love of God, because he laid down his life for us: and we ought to lay down our lives for the brethren (1 John 3:16).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">7. Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">This article begins with a reference to the complex nature of the concept of love, referring to it as a “mischievous devil”. This is only another metaphor amidst many, regarding love. And metaphors about love are numerous in die Bible, owing to the fact that emotional concepts (like many of the most basic concepts in semantics) are understood metaphorically (cf. Lakoff, 1990: 51). And in this regard one domain of experience (love) is understood in terms of many different domains of experience, which involve mappings from source domains to the target domain: love. Lakoff (1990: 51) points out that the mapping comprises epistemic correspondences, and in this regard knowledge about different things is mapped onto knowledge about love, with respect to the different metaphors about love. He also mentions that ontological correspondences map certain scenarios (knowledge structures) onto a corresponding love scenario. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> Against this view of the metaphor we ventured to examine the knowledge structure of love, with regard to its conceptualization and its portrayal in an Afrikaans version of the Bible, but also on account of recent neurological findings in this regard. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> Love, as it is portrayed in the Bible, does fit into the distinctive nature of an emotion:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">An incentive initiates love, mostly through the rational mind, on account of a force that emanates from a knowledge structure involving the meaning of the death of Jesus, inter alia; but also on account of an understanding of different speech acts within the Bible, like a promise, for instance (compare [43]). But the Bible is also very explicit regarding a force exerted by the Spirit in order to activate love (compare [37]). It is not clear whether this action involves the emotional mind directly. Perhaps the Damascus experience of Saul suggests a commitment of the emotional mind.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The experience of love implies a neurological, psychological, conceptual and linguistic involvement of the ego (deictic center). In this regard the Bible clearly distinguishes, and explicates the active participation of three “minds”: rational, emotional, and spiritual (compare [31a]). Neurologists demarcate two minds, thus far.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The Bible also acknowledges the tendency to act, an intrinsic feature of love, and other emotions (compare the <i>sacrifice</i> metaphors).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">But this “mold” is appropriate for almost any emotion, if not all. What distinguishes love from other emotions? Can we demarcate a prototypical experience of love? This is not easy, perhaps impossible, owing to the fact that love is not a “basic level experience”, in accordance with basic level categorization, “a level of categorization which is cognitively and linguistically more salient than the others”, the level at which “people normally talk about reality” (cf. Taylor, 1996: 48,49). Therefore Goleman (1996: 289) regards emotions/feelings like the following to be members of the category love: <i>acceptance</i>, <i>adoration</i>, <i>affinity</i>, <i>agape</i>, <i>devotion</i>, <i>friendliness</i>, <i>infatuation</i>, <i>kindness</i>, <i>trust</i>. Also these emotions/feelings do not really reflect “basic level experience”. They represent <i>acts of love</i>. Consequently, we have to search for “love-representing acts”. The <i>love as sacrifice</i> metaphor is one of the finest candidates (especially in the Bible) for these acts. Interesting enough, Afrikaans has the expression <i>bring ’n offer</i> ‘bring an offer’ (to sacrifice), in which case the deictic verb <i>bring</i> ‘bring’ implies movement towards a locality with which the speaker associates him-/herself as if he/she were at the certain locality, which is not the case. The deictic use of <i>bring</i> ‘bring’ relates to another <i>love as</i> metaphor, which is a very important spatial metaphor (in cognitive terms), namely <i>love as proximity</i>. Consequently, to distinguish love from other emotions and to endeavor a demarcation of a prototypical experience of love, we probably have to investigate relevant spatial metaphors. But this was not the purpose of this article.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> This article dealt with the love frame in an Afrikaans version of the Bible, and although comparisons with other translations were made from time to time, its only purpose was to elucidate the love frame in the Afrikaans version as such. All the above apply to the 1983 Afrikaans translation of the Bible. In this regard it was clear that “there are culture-specific differences in the conceptualization of emotions”, a statement of Wierzbicka, quoted by Niemeier (1997: 92). In Afrikaans the conceptualization of love varies on an objectivity/subjectivity continuum. This phenomenon is not strange to Afrikaans, but <i>only</i> in the 1983 Afrikaans translation <i>lief wees (vir)</i> ‘love be (for)’ (to love), which implies a more subjective experience of love, starts to evolve. The conceptual implications are numerous, and one can only speculate on how the next translation will accommodate construals on this level.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">Endnotes<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">1</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> This article is based on the 1983 Afrikaans translation of the Bible. Reference is also made to the 1933 version. Both translations are considered <i>literal translations</i>, like the <i>King James Version</i>, from which the English translations for the Afrikaans examples were taken. The translation philosophy for literal translations contrasts with the philosophy for <i>dynamic equivalent translations</i>. An example of the latter is the <i>New International Version</i> of the Bible in English (cf. Logos Library System).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> For the understanding of the concept God, apart from Its portrayal as “love” (cf. The First Epistle of John 4:8/16), God is also very frequently portrayed as “Father” - as “a consuming fire” (cf. Deuteronomy 4:24), “thy refuge” (cf. Deuteronomy 33:27), “a rock” (cf. Psalm 18:31), “Shepherd” (cf. Psalm 80:1), etc.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">3</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> Goleman (1996: 289) mentions the fact that researchers still continue to argue over which emotions can be considered primary, and whether there are primary emotions at all. If there are primary emotions, he considers the following to be candidates: anger, sadness, fear, enjoyment, love, surprise, disgust, shame.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">4</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> Goleman (1996: 8) states: “In a very real sense we have two minds, one that thinks and one that feels.” <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">5</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> Also compare </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.cns.nyu.edu/ledoux/book.html"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">http://www.cns.nyu.edu/ledoux/book.html</span></i></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> for information on research done at the LeDoux Lab, Center for Neural Science, New York University. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">6</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> Dutch also expresses love with a phrasal verb, <i>liefhebben</i>. The verb <i>liefhê</i> consists of a verb plus an adverb particle.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">7</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> Afrikaans also has a non-phrasal verb, designating the act of love, namely <i>bemin</i>. But this verb is usually utilized in a romantic fashion. Strangely, it does occur in the Bible twice; compare:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> (8) <i>Oor Benjamin het Moses gesê: “Wie deur die Here </i>bemin<b><i> </i></b><i>word, is veilig by Hom, skuil altyd by Hom en leef onder sy beskerming”</i> (Deuteronomium 33:12).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">(And) of Benjamin he said, The <i>beloved of the LORD</i> shall dwell in safety by him; (and the LORD) shall cover him all the day long, and he shall dwell between his shoulders (Deuteronomy 33:12).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"> (9) <i>Die koning van die noorde sal hom nie steur aan die gode van sy voorgangers of aan die god wat deur vrouens </i>bemin <i>word of aan enige ander god nie, maar sal homself belangriker as hulle almal beskou</i> (Daniël 11:37).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Neither shall he regard the God of his fathers, nor <i>the desire of women</i>, nor regard any god: for he shall magnify himself above all (Daniel 11:37).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">8</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> Afrikaans, or Cape Dutch, is principally derived from the Zuid-Holland (South Holland) dialect of the mid-17<sup>th</sup> century. English had (and still has) a considerable influence on Afrikaans. See Donaldson, B.C. (1988) <i>The Influence of English on Afrikaans</i> in this regard. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">References<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Botha, Willem J.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">1980 <i>Die Grammatika van die Eerste Persoon</i>. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Pretoria: University of South Africa (Dissertation).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Deutsche Bibelstiftung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">1975 <i>Die Bibel</i>, oder <i>Die Ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers</i>. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-62671318794162426562016-11-25T11:34:00.002+02:002016-11-26T14:49:07.065+02:00Linguistic mechanisms of power and force: two case studies<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0cm; text-align: center;">
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<b style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; text-transform: uppercase;"><span lang="EN-ZA" style="text-align: left;"><b style="text-align: center; text-indent: 14.2pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><b style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></span></b></span></span></b><br />
<b style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; text-transform: uppercase;"><span lang="EN-ZA" style="text-align: left;"><b style="text-align: center; text-indent: 14.2pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></b></span></span></b>
<b style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; text-transform: uppercase;"><span lang="EN-ZA" style="text-align: left;"><b style="text-align: center; text-indent: 14.2pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">LINGUISTIC MECHANISMS OF POWER AND FORCE: </span></b></span><b style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">TWO CASE STUDIES</span></b></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Bibliographical details: Botha, Willem J. 2007. “Linguistic mechanisms of power and force: two case studies”. Cognitive linguistics: new problems of cognition. Volume 1, number 5. Moscow, pp. 14 – 20.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">1.<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Introduction</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">As early as in the first half of the previous century Korzybski said the following with regard to the power of language:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">We do not realize what tremendous power the structure of a habitual language has. … (I)t enslaves us through the mechanism of semantic reactions. … (T)he structure which a language exhibits, and impresses on us unconsciously, is automatically projected upon the world around us</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"> [Alfred Korzybski 1879 – 1950, as quoted by Hayakawa 1962:ix].<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-size: 14.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">This view links with one of the basic tenets of cognitive linguistics, as it is expressed by Langacker [1993:1] when he postulates that </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“cognitive linguistics ... claims, in particular, that fundamental cognitive abilities and experientially derived cognitive models have direct and pervasive linguistic manifestations, and, conversely, that language structure furnishes important clues concerning basic mental phenomena”. With regard to basic mental phenomena he mentions the following notions that have general psychological importance, and which are founded on linguistic evidence: force dynamics; image schemas; subjective versus objective construal; and correspondence across cognitive domains or mental spaces.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> Langacker’s view should be evaluated against the fundamental underlying principle of language: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">language is a tool for conveying meaning. A traditional belief emphasizes a view that linguistics, especially semantics, should regard meaning as something that exists in the objective world. Such an untenable viewpoint does not take into account the fact that language is not only a tool for conveying meaning. It is, in fact, an instrument with which meaning is structured. And, in a more general sense, the structuring of (new) meanings changes the world, transforms communities; conversely, in a more general sense: changing communities and a transformed world are the result of the structuring of new meanings. And not only are different mental phenomena – as was mentioned by Langacker – applied when meaning is structured, the relative power the initiator (of meaning structure) has access to (whether by virtue of political, social or other means), also plays a crucial role in the consequential outcome of such “meaning constructions”. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">With regard to the notion of force it is also important to mention Talmy’s [1985:294] hypothesis, namely that “language uses certain fundamental notional categories to structure and organize meaning” – and in this regard he introduces, from a broader semantic perspective, the semantic category <i>force dynamics</i>. Without going into detail, two very applicable principles of force dynamics, according to Talmy’s views [1985:293-337], should be mentioned. Firstly, the meaning structuring role of force dynamics goes across a range of language levels – including, inter alia, grammatical representations, open class lexical items and discourse. It is furthermore also important to consider the fact that the force dynamic system, as a most important conceptual organizing system, integrates “schematic conceptual models of physical phenomena, which, by analogy, it extends to psychological and social phenomena” [cf. Talmy 1985:293].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">This article will deal with force dynamics and the power of language on two different language levels, namely the level of lexicalization and the level of discourse, more precisely: “discourse of persuasion” [cf. Talmy 1985:293]. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The first case study will focus on the nature of the lexicalization of force within the linguistic expression <i>transformation</i>. Owing to the fact that this article will deal with the meaning of the relevant expression within a specific context, the conceptualist approach to meaning should not be disregarded: “(t)he meaning of an expression is equated with a conceptualization in the mind of a language user” [cf. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Taylor</st1:city></st1:place> 2002:187]. In this regard one should also take notice of the fact that a distinction can be drawn between the force of language and the power of language. The force of language will refer to the schematic conceptual models – “beneath the level of consciousness” [cf. Lakoff and Johnson 1997] – that we use to conceptualize our experience and to think by using conceptual metaphors, for instance. The power of language will refer to the control, influence or authority people have by way of language. Although we make a distinction between the force and power of language, we have to realize that they interact and in many instances are not separable. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Although the first case study will focus to a great extent on the intrinsic force of language, the second case study will represent the interaction between the force and power of language on the discourse level. Linguistic behaviour prior the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Iraq</st1:country-region></st1:place> war (declared in 2003), in an effort to motivate such a war, will be scrutinized.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">2.<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">The intrinsic force of language</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">If we look at how our changing world is influencing the lives of people in numerous ways, we will realize that the acts of change – conveyed and structured by language – have many faces. If we subject the verb <i>change</i> to detailed scrutiny, various acts of change come to the fore, acts like transfer, truncation, rearrangement, metamorphosis, etc., etc. – and the concept [<span style="text-transform: uppercase;">TRANSFORMATION</span>]! All these different acts are very specific instances of change, and each one suggests exact features of a kind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span>Within the post 1994- South African context swift structural and other modifications within the specific community is taking place, embraced by the word <i>transformation</i>, representing a specific ideology. In view of the fact that the process of transformation – which the word refers to – involves (and influences) all the people of South Africa in all walks of life, it became paramount for individuals to try to get a clear understanding of the concept in order to comprehend the effects it has on their lives. Investigating the metaphors used (within a specific speech community) to comprehend the conceptual nature of the linguistic expression <i>transformation</i>, the “knowledge configurations which provide the contexts against which the relevant semantic unit is to be understood” [cf. <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taylor</st1:place></st1:city> 1995:84-85], was examined. Also known as the conceptual domains, they function as source inputs for the metaphoric comprehension of the relevant concept.<span style="color: blue;"> </span>In this regard the conceptual nature of the relevant expression is conceived of as <i>a living organism</i> (“transformation has its aches”); <i>a moving organism</i> (“transformation has a snail’s pace”); <i>a military action</i> (“transformation campaign”); <i>a limited entity</i><b><span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> </span></b>(“The School is ‘over transformed’ with about 99% black pupils”); <i>an opponent</i> (“X has to play against transformation”); <i>a force</i> (“The force of transformation will be increased”). Apart from the fact that the relevant concept is explicitly linked with force in one of the metaphors, the other metaphors reveal the image-schematic (thus: implicit) experience of force.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Comparing the source inputs of these metaphors with the contextually structured definitions of several dictionaries and thesauri – such as <i>Encarta® World English Dictionary</i>, <i>Van Dale Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal</i> and the <i>Oxford Talking Dictionary</i> – relating to the contexts of mathematics, biology, physics, linguistics, theatre, and<span style="color: blue;"> </span>genetics – a prototypical meaning gestalt was postulated – in accordance with Lakoff and Johnson’s [1980:479] experiential gestalt of the concept [<span style="text-transform: uppercase;">CAUSATION</span>]<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">[1]</span></span></span></a>. On account of this examination it was found that the literal and non-literal (metaphoric) readings of the word <i>transform</i> (the verbal source of the noun <i>transformation</i>) exhibit similar meanings. Consequently we can deduct a “formula” for the conceptualization of the word <i>transformation</i> – a definition that distinguishes the meaning of the relevant word from that of other verbs of change.<span style="color: blue;"> </span>The “meaning formula” can be formulated in the following way: an agent transforms an object (to another state or place over a specific period of time, which implies a result of the relevant action).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Apart from the fact that the verb <i>transform</i>, explicitly or implicitly, reveals different features of force – as was disclosed by its metaphorical uses –– it is important to notice that the action of transformation ends in a certain state or place, and at a certain time. Coulson and Oakley (2000:190) refer to similar constructions as “caused motion construction(s)”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Within the South African context one of the complicating aspects with regard to the conceivability of the concept [<span style="text-transform: uppercase;">TRANSFORMATION</span>] is the fact that the result and the termination of the process of transformation at this point in time remain indefinite. For that reason the construal of the concept as such becomes maximally objective [cf. Langacker 1990:7] – and as a result, it brings the force feature to the fore, as was illustrated by the conceptual metaphors used to comprehend the relevant concept.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Another contextual variable with regard to the meaning of the word <i>transformation</i> is the fact that within the post 1994- South African context (post-apartheid context) the relative (intrinsic) force encapsulated by the word <i>transformation</i> is endorsed by the power of official political structures determined by the Constitution of South Africa. In order to institute a fair and just society (contrary to the apartheid state) article 9(5) of the Constitution reads: “Discrimination … is unfair unless it is established that the discrimination is fair.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">On account of this stipulation vigorous actions like the following are taking place under the jurisdiction of fair discrimination: affirmative action, black empowerment, promotion of black ethnicity, and others. All these actions are referred to by the government and the people as instances of transformation. Owing to the fact that the word <i>transformation</i> is used to encapsulate all these actions (incidentally, most of these actions imply some kind of force), the meaning of the relevant word became more generalized [cf. Dirven and Verspoor 1999:41 for an overview of how specialized and generalized meanings reveal a radial network]. Should one in this specific South African context doubt the actions covered by the meaning of the word <i>transformation</i>, one would be accused of being disloyal to the Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Against the background of the previous discussion one could undoubtedly conclude that the intrinsic relative force of the word <i>transformation</i> is contextually strengthened by the power of official structures, like a constitution for instance. This example clearly illustrates the intimate relationship between the force and power of language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">3. </span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">The interaction between the force and power of language</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Because of its speech act<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">[2]</span></span></span></a> structure language shapes war. This phenomenon becomes very clear when one examines the immediate circumstances prior to military action taken against <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 2003. In this regard resolution 1441, which put certain restrictions on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Iraq</st1:country-region></st1:place> with regard to weapons of mass destruction, acted as an instigator of disagreement – not only revealed by language, but also conveyed by the force structure of language; and, most significantly, endorsed by the relative political power of the most important role players in different discourses of persuasion. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">When we look back to </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">the time subsequent to 11 September 2001 – about a week after 11 September 2001 – a very important (and overlooked) speech act took place when the British Prime Minister, Mr. Tony Blair, said: “Whatever the technical and legal issues about a declaration of war, the fact is that we are at war with terrorism.” This commitment speech act is similar to the one that President George Bush made in a press release from the White House on 5 December 2002 when he implicated a war declaration in phrases like the following: “there’s no bigger issue than to win this<b> </b>war against the terrorists”; “(i)t’s a different kind of war”; “(t)his is a different kind of enemy”; “I cannot imagine what was going through their mind when they hit America”; “(t)hese people are scattered in 60 different countries”; “September 11th, 2001, completely changed the strategic calculations of this country”; and “(t)he battlefield is here”. I will come back to this declaration of war. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The relative status and power of the speaker contributes to the relative force of a specific speech act. Consequently the power of the previously mentioned speech acts<span style="color: blue;"> </span>can not be underestimated. But prior to the conventional war against Iraq different people in various positions of power committed diverse speech acts, either to increase the possibility of war, or to diminish it. And the intrinsic power of Bush’s speech acts was also delegated to representative role players, people like Colin Powell, Donald Rumsfeld, representatives of the White House and other. Although Bush proclaimed on different occasions that the USA was willing to act unilateral against Iraq – without the support for a new resolution – it was very clear from the beginning that the speech act support of other international role players (and the resulting moral commitment) would strengthen his cause. For that reason it was very important that a Tony Blair, the UN, NATO and the EU should have <i>spoken out</i> their support.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">And this lead to diplomatic initiatives on different speech act levels to assist speech act strategies in order to culminate in a coalition’s collective “declaration of war”. The complexity of Bush’s initial “declaration of war”<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">[3]</span></span></span></a> is inferable from an examination of the different speech acts of a variety of role players prior to the war. In this regard resolution 1441 acted as the centrifugal speech act force<a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 14.0pt;">[4]</span></span></span></a>. UN resolution 1441 (amongst other things, prohibiting the development of missiles with a certain range) was a definite example of a directive, instigating various other speech acts, which I will not go into detail within this discussion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">But the follow up draft resolution by the <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region>, in which military action against <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region> was asked for, was invalidated by persuading speech acts that did not have the outcomes the protagonists of war wished for. These speech acts, in which war was pressed for, manifested in representative speech acts in which the alleged “truth” was presented and evaluated. On the 5<sup> </sup>February 2003 general Colin Powell made a proposal to the UN Security Council in which he motivated the follow up resolution in the following words (as reported by BBC News World Edition): “My second purpose today is to provide you with additional information (representative speech act), to share with you what the United States knows about Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction as well as Iraq’s involvement in terrorism (evaluative speech act), which is also the subject of Resolution 1441 and other earlier resolutions.” In this regard Mr. Tony Blair’s speech act support for the implementation of this resolution had been counterproductive with the revelation that the contents of a secret dossier which should have supported the alleged Iraq-“truths”, was based on historic evidence. The <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">International</span></strong></st1:placename><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <st1:placename w:st="on">Action</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Center</st1:placetype></span></strong></st1:place><strong> </strong><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">bluntly stated: “Blair’s ‘dossier’ publicity stunt flops as tide turns against war”.</span></strong><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">On Friday 7 March 2003 the force of speech acts culminated during a debate of the Security Council when the British Minister of Defense, Mr. Jack Straw, proposed an amended resolution as an ultimatum (a directive – “final demand: a demand accompanied by a threat to inflict some penalty if the demand is not met”<span style="color: blue;"> </span>– <i>Encarta World English Dictionary</i>) to Iraq: disarm or face war! Reporters described his speech and the debate as “emotional”, “dramatic” and “passionate”, actually defining the overarching macro speech act as an expressive. Expressives in certain contexts function as excellent strategic speech act devices to convince the listener to act according to the speaker’s objectives. And that was exactly the intent Straw had with his various speech acts under the umbrella of the macro expressive: to encourage non-permanent members of the Security Council to vote for the specific resolution, and to persuade members with a right to veto, not to use that privilege. Did countries like <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> not use their veto – a speech act revealing </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">their power to reject – they would have been forced by this implied commissive speech act to appropriate acts in the future. Using their veto, they would have executed a directive, influencing the future actions of other – contrary to a commissive. This balance between a commissive and a directive is not only a clear example of the conflict of forces manifested in language, but it also reveals the intimate relation between force and power and the way in which a position of power activates force.<span style="color: #ff6600;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #ff6600; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">An analysis of the </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">above</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-mentioned resolution shows that its illocutionary force is determined by the political power of the alliance who proposed it, but also by the relative authority of different members of the Security Council. Although the result of an accepted resolution was aimed at action against Hussein, the rejection of this resolution – by a majority or a veto vote – would have had a serious impact on the proposers of the resolution. The directive force of denial would have put the proposers in a committed position of non-aggression – since a resolution does not reflect an opinion poll, but it ties the participants to its illocutionary force: a force <i>for</i> or a force <i>against</i>! For that reason it is understandable why the proposers eventually did not want to bring it to the vote. As a result they could have exploited the less hostile resolution 1441 to motivate aggressive action. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Closely linked to and integrated into the illocutionary force of speech acts, is the power of metaphor. It becomes clear when we look at the previous quoted motivations given prior to the war. On 24 October 2002 the <i><a href="http://www.thedailycamera.com/bdc/" target="_new"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Boulder Daily Camera</span></a></i> hypothesized that Bush had two reasons for such a war: “The first is that Saddam is determined to acquire nuclear weapons, already has biological and chemical weapons, and may use any of them. The second is that a link exists between the regime in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Iraq</st1:country-region></st1:place> and the al-Qaida network.”<span style="color: blue;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">On 5 December 2002 Bush turns the order around in a press release by the White House. The first section of his release contains expressions like the following: “there’s no bigger issue than to win this war against the terrorists”; “(i)t’s a different kind of war”; “(t)his is a different kind of enemy”; “I cannot imagine what was going through their mind when they hit America”; “(t)hese people are scattered in 60 different countries”; “September 11th, 2001, completely changed the strategic calculations of this country”; and “(t)he battlefield is here”. And then he transfers the battlefield: “We’ve got to be wise about how we view the world and make sure that the new arrangements, the new alliances aren’t allowed to develop. An alliance, for example, where a nation that has weapons of mass destruction uses a shadowy terrorist network as a forward army, perhaps encouraging them to attack <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">America</st1:country-region></st1:place> without leaving any fingerprints. … And that’s why I started talking about <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Saddam Hussein.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The last section of the press release is allocated to a motivation for action against <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region>. He explicitly mentions Saddam Hussein and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Linked to Tony Blair’s observation about war (“Whatever the technical and legal issues about a declaration of war, the fact is that we are at war with terrorism.”) and Bush’s own reference to the battle against terror (“fighting terror and all forms of terror”), it becomes clear that both of them declared war against terror / terrorists / terrorism. On account of their status as heads of states their utterances can indeed be considered as unambiguous declarations of war. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The principles and practices of terror – actually the conceptual deep structure for the word <i>terrorism</i> – are numerous. But to fight terror and terrorism in fact means to fight metaphors, because both these words are essentially ontological metaphors. As conceptual devices they enable us to put different actions and ideas under one conceptual umbrella (technical known as superordinate and hyponym experiences, creating a conceptual hierarchy). Then we can use them strategically in different contexts to exploit a specific facet of the metaphor. Since the conceptual metaphor enables us to comprehend abstract concepts via more concrete experiences, it therefore facilitates a switch of the conceptual route from the abstract to the concrete. We then concretize the word <i>terrorist </i>(an ontological metaphor) accordingly. Although terrorists usually do not present countries (and are in that respect faceless), the word <i>terrorist</i> allows us to open the conceptual umbrella over who ever we may find it suitable for. And that is precisely what Bush did when he identified Saddam Hussein saying: “We’ve got to be wise about how we view the world and make sure that the new arrangements, the new alliances aren’t allowed to develop. An alliance, for example, where a nation that has weapons of mass destruction uses a shadowy terrorist network as a forward army, perhaps encouraging them to attack <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">America</st1:country-region></st1:place> without leaving any fingerprints. … And that’s why I started talking about <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Saddam Hussein.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Concretizing the concept [TERRORIST] in the person of Hussein, enabled Bush to, firstly, identify a conventional antagonist. Following from that he could now also identify a conventional space for battle, transferring the initial battlefield (in his words: “(t)he battlefield is here”) to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Iraq</st1:country-region></st1:place> – and such a battlefield was ideal for a conventional war!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Contrary to the concept [TERRORIST], the concepts [<span style="text-transform: uppercase;">TERROR</span>] and [TERRORISM] are not that easy to concretize. Consequently we can consider Blair’s declaration of war against terrorism (thus on a more abstract level) – and not terrorists – as a more cautious declaration of war. In this regard the relative force implied by the words <i>terrorist</i> and <i>terrorism</i> is different. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">4.<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Conclusion</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Ideology and war change the world. Examining two different contexts of ideology and war, I outlined the role of the intricate relation between the intrinsic force of language and the power put into effect by the use of language. Although a distinction was drawn between power and force, such a distinction may sometimes be very superficial on account of the interaction of different determining grammatical, lexical or contextual variables with regard to the specific meaning structure of the relevant linguistic expression. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">References<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Act 108 of 1996. 1996. <i>The Constitution of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Republic</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">South Africa</st1:placename></st1:place></i>, Chapter 1: Bill of Rights.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">BBC News World Edition. </span><span class="date1"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 4.5pt;">5 February, 2003. </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Full text of Powell speech (pt I). </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2729525.stm">http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2729525.stm</a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL;">Botha, Willem J. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">2004a</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL;">. Betekeniservaring en betekenisgesag van die woordeboek. </span><i><span lang="EN-ZA" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;">Journal for Language Teaching</span></i><span lang="EN-ZA" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;"> / <i>Tydskrif vir Taalonderrig</i> 38/1, June 2004, 130–142. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Botha, </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL;">Willem</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"> J. 2004b. </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: AF;">The semantics of transformation. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">CD-publication – <i>Identity</i></span><i><span lang="EN-ZA" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;"> and Creativity in Language Education. Proceedings of the 21st World Congress of the World Federation of Modern Language Associations</span></i><span lang="EN-ZA" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-ZA;"> / <i>Fédération Internationale des Professeurs de Langues Vivantes</i> (<i>FIPLV</i>), 2 – 5 July 2003, RAU, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Johannesburg</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region></st1:place>. ISBN 0-620-31884-8. Publisher: RAU.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><a href="http://www.thedailycamera.com/bdc/" target="_new"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Boulder Daily Camera</span></a></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">. 2002. (<u><a href="http://www.commondreams.org/"><span style="color: windowtext;">http://www.commondreams.org/</span></a></u>).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Coulson, S. & T. Oakley. 2000. Blending basics. <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i> 11(3/4):175–196.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Dirven, </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL;">René</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"> & Marjolijn Verspoor (eds.). 1999. <i>Cognitieve inleiding tot taal en taalwetenschap</i>. Leuven / <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Amersfoort</st1:place></st1:city>: Acco.</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Hayakawa, S.I. 1962. <i>The use and misuse of language</i>. <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greenwich</st1:place></st1:city>: Fawcett.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;">International</span></strong></st1:placename><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;"> <st1:placename w:st="on">Action</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Center</st1:placetype></span></strong></st1:place><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;">. 2003. (</span></strong><strong><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><a href="http://www.iacenter.org/" target="_top"><span style="color: windowtext; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">http://www.iacenter.org/</span></a></span></u></strong><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;">).</span></strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson. 1980. Conceptual metaphor in everyday language. <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i> 77(8):453–486, August 1980.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson. 1999. <i>Philosophy in the Flesh</i>. <i>The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought</i>. <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: Basic Books.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Langacker, R.W. 1990. Subjectification. <i>Cognitive linguistics</i> 1(1):5–38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Langacker, Ronald W. 1993. Reference-point constructions. <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i> 4(1):1–38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Learning Company. 1998. <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><i>Oxford</i></st1:place></st1:city><i> talking dictionary</i>. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL-BE;">London: Learning Company Properties (electronic version).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Microsoft</span><span lang="FR" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">. 1999. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Encarta World English Dictionary</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL-BE;">Seattle: Microsoft Corporation (electronic version).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The White House. 5 December 2002. <i>Two Bush statements on <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region> & war on terror</i> (press release).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Richards, Jack, John Platt & Heidi Weber. 1989. <i>Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics</i>. <st1:place w:st="on">Essex</st1:place>: Longman. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Talmy, Leonard. 1985. Force dynamics in language and thought. <i>Papers from the Parasession on Causatives and Agentivity</i>. <st1:city w:st="on">Chicago</st1:city>: <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chicago</st1:place></st1:city> Linguistic Society. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Taylor, John R. 1995. <i>Linguistic Categorization. Prototypes in Linguistic Theory</i>. <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oxford</st1:place></st1:city>: Clarendon Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Taylor, John R. 2002. <i>Cognitive Grammar</i>. <st1:city w:st="on">Oxford</st1:city>: <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Oxford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL-BE;">Van </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Dale</span></span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: NL-BE;"><span style="font-size: large;">. 2000. <i>Van Dale Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal</i>. Utrecht/ Antwerpen: Van Dale Lexicografie.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Language not only conveys meaning – it also structures and organizes meaning. Against this background this article deals with force dynamics and the power of language on two different language levels, namely the level of lexicalization and the level of discourse. Although a distinction is drawn between the force of language (mostly grammaticalized or lexicalized) and the power of language (mostly determined by different discourse variables), force and power very often interact in a very intimate way to structure meaning. Two case studies not only reveal force and power in this regard, but also their close interrelation. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">The details of this analysis cannot be discussed here. See Botha [2004a] and Botha [2004b] for a comprehensive discussion.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">The speech act theory cannot be discussed within the limitations of this article. A few remarks will have to suffice for this context. In speech act theory the <b>illocutionary force</b> (<b>meaning</b>) of an utterance (or written text) is the underlying effect of the specific utterance with regard to the listener (or reader). Context functions as a very important variable – especially in the case of indirect speech acts. Speech acts can be classified into <b>commissives</b> (committing the speaker to do something in the future); <b>declaratives</b> (changing the state of affairs in the world); <b>directives</b> (getting the listener to do something); <b>expressives</b> (expressing feelings and attitudes about something); <b>representatives</b> (describing states or events in the world) – cf. Richards, Platt & Weber [1989:265–266].<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">His ultimatum to Saddam Hoessein and his sons to leave Iraq, followed by a proclamation in a speech on 18 March 2003 (“Free nations have a duty to defend our people by uniting against the violent, and tonight, as we have done before, America and our allies accept that responsibility.”) are implicit declarations of war, formalized in his written notice to the Congress of the USA on 19 March 2003.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><a href="file:///F:/A%20Eksterne%20skyf%20A%20Verbatim/G%20Data%202009/B%20Universiteit/C%20Navorsing/D%20VW%20Louw-lesing%202009/B%20Algemene%20aantekeninge/Linguistic%20mechanisms%20of%20power%20and%20force.doc#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><i>Encarta World English Dictionary</i><span lang="EN-US"> defines a resolution as “<i>a</i> <i>formal expression</i> of the consensus at a meeting, arrived at after discussion and usually as the result of a vote”. The speech act force of such an expression is explicitly mentioned further on in the definition: “a firm decision to do something”.</span></span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-52883934237678233342016-11-25T09:21:00.002+02:002016-11-26T14:50:22.793+02:00Cognition and perception. How language reveals the new South Africa<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0cm; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #660000;"><b style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #660000;">Die volgende artikel is 'n ongepubliseerde referaat wat in 2000 in Seattle by 'n kongres van die </span><i style="color: #660000;">International Society of Political Psychology</i><span style="color: #660000;"> gelewer is:</span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">COGNITION AND PERCEPTION:</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">HOW LANGUAGE REVEALS THE NEW SOUTH AFRICA</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Willem J. Botha </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">[Emeritusprofessor (taalkunde: kognitiewe taalkunde), RAU/UJ] </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">1.<b> Background<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">1.1.<b> </b><i>Cognition and perception</i><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Information from the environment is gathered by the sense organs. This process is usually referred to as sensation. Apart from the traditional five senses – hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and touching – two additional senses are currently distinguished, called proprioceptive senses, referring to the experience of body position and body movement. The first one of these senses, kinesthesia, registers information about the movement and position of the limbs and other parts of the body relative to each other, while the vestibular sense records information on the position of the body in space in relation to gravity and movement (see Westen, 1996:153). These two senses relate to a basic linguistic concept, deixis: the linguistic expression of the speaker’s coordinates of existence; that is identity, space and time. And deixis very closely links with preconceptual image schemas, which represent one of the categories of basic mental phenomena founded on linguistic evidence and which have general psychological importance; the others being: force dynamics; subjective versus objective construal; correspondence across cognitive domains or mental spaces; and cognitive reference point (see Langacker, 1993:1).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">This paper largely deals with the concept of Afrikanerdom, that is “Afrikaner nationalism based on pride in the Afrikaans language and culture, conservative Calvinism, and a sense of heritage as pioneers”, according to CED. It will be argued that previously the experience of Afrikanerdom almost functioned on a preconceptual level (a basic mental phenomenon), on account of the fact that both the self-image of the Afrikaner and the perception of the prototypical Afrikaner (see section 2.1) lasted for such a long time – more than a generation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Closely related to the process of sensation is the process of perception, an organizing process in which the brain organizes and interprets different sensations. And this process links with cognition in general, and the linguistic expression of different conceptual blending processes in particular. These conceptual blending processes result in the linguistic expression of cognitive – but also cultural, moral and evaluating experiences. Language usage as such uncovers these experiences, like the Afrikaans language did in the previous South Africa (see Dirven, 1994) – but also in the present transforming South Africa, as will be pointed out regarding the recategorization of the Afrikaner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">1.2<b>. </b><i>South Africa in transition</i><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">In 1994 the ideology of apartheid – and the previous South Africa – came to an end. This ideology had been an official policy of racial segregation, instigated and practiced for forty-six years by the former National Party. A new Constitution came into practice – a constitution based on accepted democratic values. But a constitution as such is an exponent of a sociopolitical ideology, “(a) set of doctrines or beliefs that form the basis of a political, economic, or other system,” as defined by the AHD. A constitution mostly reflects an underlying “ideology”, … “a body of ideas reflecting the social needs and aspirations of an individual, a group, a class, or a culture”, according to the AHD. And an ideology, as a conceptual system, – according to Lakoff (to be published) – includes a moral system, and as such implies both conscious and unconscious/hidden parts. And a moral system, in my view, closely links with (a) an emotional system, as will be pointed out in section 2.3.2; (b) an image-schematic force, as seen from a cognitive point of view and referred to in section 1.1; (c) </span><span lang="EN-US">standards of conduct that are accepted as right or correct at a certain time and a certain place, therefore linking it with deixis as such.</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Underlying the new South </span><span lang="EN-GB">African Constitution exists an ideology founded on the need to build a sole nation, to invalidate former strict boundaries between people; to create a new nation with fuzzy boundaries – the “rainbow nation.” Consequently, moral values of the previous system formally came under scrutiny when the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission came into existence. This Commission was established to the promote National Unity and Reconciliation (Act No 34 of 1995). With reference to the Commission, <strong><span style="font-weight: normal;">Mr. Dullah Omar, former Minister of Justice said that “… a commission is a necessary exercise </span></strong>to enable South Africans to come to terms with their past on a morally accepted basis and to advance the cause of reconciliation” (Internet: <a href="http://www.truth.org.za/"><span style="color: black; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: black;">http://www.truth.org.za/</span></a>). The hearings took place to scrutinise violations against human rights which took place against the background of deep-rooted moral values (thus, image schematic in nature) justifying the ideology of apartheid, instigated by the previous (National Party) government and endorsed by the Church (specifically by the decision-making leaders of the traditional Afrikaans churches). As a result, these well-established moral values, nourished by the before-mentioned institutions, were shattered – to such an extent that the traditional Afrikaans churches lost their status as sole agents of morality<a href="file:///C:/Users/Willie/Dropbox/Word-dokumentasie/O%20Navorsing/A-South%20Africa%20and%20its%20categories05.rtf#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">[1]</span></span></span></a> for the Afrikaner. Regarding political power, this group was perceived as the dominant category (of people) within the previous South Africa. This perception was based on the fact that the majority of supporters of the previous National Party were mainly Afrikaners. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The “new ideology” founded on the need to build a sole nation embodies a rich fusion of concepts, amongst others, concepts which are typically (in a South Africa in transition) revealed in language expressions like <i>affirmative action</i>, <i>racism</i>, <i>transformation</i>,<i> transition</i>, <i>truth and reconciliation</i> and others – concepts which are conceptually linked to each other, and which are primarily based on moral judgment; and consequently, based on perception and cognition. But these concepts also played an important role in the dispersion of the Afrikaner group, and is playing a role in the regrouping of these (psychologically) scattered people – in the sense that these concepts are implicit in some of the category-distinguishing features (see section 2.3). In addition, pronouns like <i>I</i>, <i>we</i>, <i>you</i>, <i>they</i> (pronouns revealing the perception of certain ideological affiliations and dissociations – see Botha, to be published) are also used frequently within these contexts. Presently language usage in the South Africa conveys these changing perceptions – perceptions based on changing conceptual contents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">2.<b> Changing conditions and changing perceptions<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">2.1.<b> </b><i>The prototype </i>Afrikaner<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">To illustrate the changing conceptual contents revealed by language, one first has to look briefly at some historical facts and events which lead to a conventional perception of a previous South African society based on racism, and closely linked to the perception of the prototypical Afrikaner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">Two main categories of people existed in the previous South Africa, based on colour: <i>whites</i> and <i>non-whites</i>. Legislation kept these groups in all possible ways apart from each other.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Since 1948 until 1994 the National Party, instigators of the policy of apartheid, governed the country. Supporters of this party were for the most part Afrikaners (</span><span lang="EN-US">Afrikaans-speaking South Africans)</span><span lang="EN-GB">. </span><span lang="EN-US">Verhoef (1999:31) points out that political supremacy of the Afrikaner came into existence in 1945 and lasted until 1970 – overlapping with a period in which National Party rule prospered. Consequently, the overemphasized link between apartheid and the Afrikaner (and Afrikaans) could be expected. During these years Afrikaner political power was </span><span lang="EN-GB">perceived as the exponent of a collective Afrikaner well-being. </span><span lang="EN-US">Afrikaners were emerging economically and politically from a background of poverty and disruption caused by (a) the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902; (b) their contribution to the First World War; (c) the 1914 Rebellion; (d) the Great Depression of the 1930s; and (e) the crippling drought of 1933, and subsequent urbanization. Giliomee (1999:17-18) mentions that apartheid came into existence in a context of a rapid, and sometimes chaotic and traumatic process of urbanization.</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">The Protestant Church, and more specific the three Afrikaans churches in which group the Dutch Reformed Church played a dominant role, endorsed the policy of apartheid on Biblical grounds – thus, the moral judgment of such a policy.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">Behind the scenes a clandestine organization, called the <i>Afrikaner-Broederbond</i> (“Brotherhood”), vigorously supported the shaping of Afrikaner nationalism – and the (prototypical) conceptual content of the word <i>Afrikaner</i>. Afrikaner cultural organizations advanced these ideals to a great extent.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">Two official languages existed for the country, namely Afrikaans and English.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">During a certain timespan Afrikaners were largely spatially confined – within the boundaries of South Africa<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The above-mentioned circumstances enhanced a perception of a prototypical Afrikaner as being white, predominantly male, Afrikaans-speaking, religious and a member of one of the traditional Afrikaans churches; conservative, obedient, very disciplined, and loyal to the prescribed moral values of the group. And this prototype not only served as a measure for a “good” Afrikaner – it also functioned as a model for the education of Afrikaners. In his letter (see section 2.3.2) Chris Louw puts into words the “obedient” and “discipline” features, translated as follows: <i>We were taught to be seen and not to be heard, to obey orders without any objection, to show our respect for the elderly.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The changing concept <i>Afrikaner</i> will be analyzed against the background of the previous prototypical perception of this category.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">2.2.<b> </b></span><i><span lang="EN-US">Delineating</span><span lang="EN-GB"> the category </span></i><span lang="EN-GB">Afrikaner</span><b><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Taylor (1995: 65-66) – from a cognitive point of view – considers a prototype as a very important category structuring principle, coexisting with another vital structuring principle (in accordance with Langacker’s [1987] view), namely elaboration of a schema. He quotes Langacker (1987: 371) in this regard:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">“A prototype is a typical instance of a category, and other elements are assimilated to the category on the basis of their perceived resemblance to the prototype; there are degrees of membership based on degrees of similarity. A schema, by contrast is an abstract characterization that is fully compatible with all the members of the category it defines (so membership is not a matter of degree); it is an integrated structure that embodies the commonality of its members, which are conceptions of greater specificity and detail that elaborate the schema in contrasting ways.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In accordance with Langacker’s analysis of prototypes and schemas, we can examine a previous conceptualzation of <i>Afrikaner</i> as follows. The word <i>Afrikaner</i> was associated with specific instances of the group – prominent (political, cultural, religious) leaders who had the following schematic representation in common: white, predominantly male, Afrikaans-speaking, religious and being a member of one of the traditional Afrikaans churches, conservative, obedient, very disciplined, and loyal to the prescribed moral values of the group – as was pointed out above. This representation (AFRIKANER<sup>a</sup>) functioned as the prototype. On numerous occations extensions of this prototype came into existence when subcategories of the Afrikaner were characterized, like the categorization in the sixties on the basis of <i>verlig</i> (“enlightened”) and <i>verkramp</i> (“narrow-minded”), by Willem de Klerk, the brother of the last white president of South Africa, F.W. de Klerk. A further schema was extracted, namely AFRIKANER<sup>b</sup>, which then functioned as a prototype for new extensions. In relation to the above-mentioned schematic representation (that of AFRIKANER<sup>a</sup>), the features <i>conservative </i>and <i>obedient</i> were dominant in the new extension. Further elaborations of the category <i>Afrikaner</i> took place in accordance with the political development of the Afrikaner until 1994, reflecting more and more modifications to most of the prototype-defining features, becoming more and more abstract. Presently the schema acting as prototype (AFRIKANER<sup>n</sup>) is so fluid that Willem de Klerk (<i>Rapport</i>, 12 March 2000) suggests that it should be phased out at the expense of the concept <i>Afrikaans-speaking community</i> – because it is so polluted with apartheid. Accordingly, Hermann Giliomee (<i>Beeld</i>, 9 May 2000) stresses the fact that Afrikaners are at present scattered over too many spectra to be represented by one group.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In spite of these views an Afrikaner debate is currently taking place, focusing mainly on the collective nature of an Afrikaner group against the background of<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">the minority status of this specific group within a country of minorities and a globalizing world;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">the diminishing status of the Afrikaans language within a country with eleven official languages, and a government and business promoting English as the only “official” language – in conflict with the Constitution; and<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">disagreement between Afrikaners regarding the category <i>Afrikaner</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">2.3.<b> </b><i>Endeavouring a recategorization of the group </i>Afrikaner</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Conditions related to the circumstances referred to in section 2.1. changed dramatically after the political transformation of 1994. New living conditions initiated new perceptions of the past, based on present-day experiences and perceptions of transformation, affirmative action, human rights, “fair” discrimination, strange moralities – and an Afrikaner diaspora. These circumstances instigated a re-evaluation of the Afrikaner from within, mainly because of the perceived demise of the status of the Afrikaans language, but also because of the loss of supremacy by the Afrikaner. This led to a debate regarding the character of the Afrikaner, flourishing from time to time. To address these issues a few publications came to light in the last year or so, one of them in March this year by Willem de Klerk, previously mentioned. The title of the publication is <i>Afrikaners: kroes, kras, kordaat</i>, literally translated as “Afrikaners: crisp, robust, bold”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">On 27 April of this year a reader (under the pseudonym <i>Psychiatrist</i>) wrote a letter to a daily Afrikaans newspaper, <i>Beeld</i>, in reaction to this book. This letter triggered a reaction (in response to the same book) from Chris Louw, chief-editor of the peak time Afrikaans programmes <i>Monitor</i> and <i>Spektrum</i>, broadcasted by the national broadcasting company (SABC) – see section 2.3.2. And this letter activated a very intense and ongoing debate regarding the category Afrikaner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">In my view this reaction – as an explotion of rational, and mostly emotional views regarding the past and present situation in which the Afrikaner finds himself – is a manifestation of a suppressed psychological state of certain subgroups of the Afrikaner. At the moment of writing (May 2000) it can be perceived as a kind of catharsis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">With regard to the category <i>Afrikaner</i>, the remainder of this paper will be based on perceptions revealed by these two letters and the reaction it set off.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">2.3.1.<b> </b><i>New category-defining variables</i><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The letter by <i>Psychiatrist</i> represents a rather general perception amongst Afrikaans-speaking people about the dispersed category <i>Afrikaner</i>. But within this category the author accentuates important subcategories of the main category <i>Afrikaner</i>, based on age difference – relating to the immediate history. He/she makes a distinction between a group of Afrikaners who are in their thirties or forties (let us call them group A), and an older group of Afrikaners (which we will call group B).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The former group represents the core of those people who had to fight a war to keep the ideology of apartheid intact, like Chris Louw, previously mentioned – author of the second letter referred to. They had na choice. Those who contested this war, had to go to prison – or leave the country.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The latter group represents those who created and perpetuated the ideological rules – the National Party Government and their ideological followers. Because this categorization is based on an age criterion, it oversimplifies a very complex previous situation. Ideological differences were not constrained by age. Some of those people who would belong to category B, were in the days of apartheid the strongest contestants of this ideology, while they are at present promoting the idea of Afrikanerdom based on the language criterion – people like Breyten Breytenbach (a well-known Afrikaans author, previously detained because of his ANC-links) and Hermann Giliomee (a prominent historian who challenged the ideology of apartheid during the National Party’s time in power). And some of those from category B, who left the country because they would not be involved in a war to uphold apartheid (and implicitly or explicitly supported the ANC) find themselves in the company of people who try to promote the position of Afrikaans (like those who were mentioned from group B).<span style="color: maroon;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The application of an age criterion implies that new category-variables for a schema are currently taking shape for the Afrikaner – eventually resulting in a new prototype. But the age criterion as such actually reveals underlying emotional experiences of the past and the present – experiences that are crucial as cohesive links for a collective group.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">2.3.2.<b> </b><i>Emotional variables</i></span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Referring to the above-mentioned group A, Psychiatrist – in his letter – characterises them as mentally exhausted and shattered. And he links this condition to what he calls a “defeat syndrome” and an existential crisis, which, obviously, relates to identity – and the other coordinates of existence: space (South Africa) and time (post-apartheid era). He finds the reason for these conditions not in a lost war, but especially in a vanished respect for previous leaders and the generation they represented; but also in a disbelieve of the moral values of that generation. He even perceives this condition as an equivalent to the Viëtnam syndrome. This view actually expresses the intricate link between morality and emotionality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #993300;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB">In his letter in reaction to the book of Willem de Klerk – and inspired by the letter of Psychiatrist – Chris Louw in fact articulates the morality-emotionality tie against the background of his conceptualization of the emerging generation split between Afrikaners, a division of people on account of collective experiences of the past and the present. The main issues focused on in this letter can be summarized as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">The author’s generation was raised to contain their emotions.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">His generation was raised to obey orders.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">He accentuates the generation gap between himself and that of Willem de Klerk.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">He addresses the creation of propagandistic concepts of the past on account of which his generation was sent to war.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">He deals with the sacrifice of the lifes of the children of the older generation for that generation’s ideals.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">He comments on Willem de Klerk’s creation of the concepts <i>verlig</i> and <i>verkramp</i> (see section 2.2) – and adds a third concept, referring to the generation of De Klerk: <i>verknog</i> (“intimately attached to”).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">He points out his generation’s role as instruments of the earlier propaganda machine.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">He conveys his view on the lack of an honest admission of guilt by De Klerk’s generation.</span><span lang="EN-GB"></span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">He expresses his view on the previous government’s lack of strategy during the negotiations for a new South Africa.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">· </span><span lang="EN-GB">He articulates h</span><span lang="EN-US">is generation’s experience of the consequences of this lack of strategy: they are still the instruments, but just of a new order.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">He describes his </span><span lang="EN-GB">generation’s</span><span lang="EN-US"> emotional crisis, referring to the letter of Psychiatrist.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">He expresses his discontent with the Afrikaner leaders of De Klerk’s generation, contrasting them with prominent Afrikaner leaders and Afrikaner people of the past.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">He mentions the misleading moral values of the past and immediately links it with his current emotional experience.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">He ends his letter with the perception that it is his generation who still has to carry the guilt of the past, and even now they are the powerless. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Although he explicitly expresses his </span><span lang="EN-GB">emotional</span><span lang="EN-US"> state of discontent and anger at some stage, this emotional experience – closely linked with a disapproval of previous moral values – functions as undertone of this letter. The nature of the overwhelming emotional public response in the press confirms this reading. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We can question the emotions involved when Chris Louw makes the statement (translated as): “My generation was brought up to contain our emotions, not to get involved in any form of affection – not love, and not hatred.” Within the context of this letter it actually exposes the interconnected experience of emotionality, morality and cognition regarding the collective ideological nature of a group – such as the Afrikaner. Although this letter expresses a certain existing emotional experience (also exhibited in the public response to this letter), the undertone (as well as the reference to his generation’s emotional cultivation) reveals the intricate link between emotionality and morality. This response follows an earlier (and still existing) post-apartheid response from the Afrikaner, particularly the Afrikaans churches as such – that of guilt: the primary moral emotion, as seen from a psychodynamic view (compare Westen, 1996:561).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">The psychodynamic viewpoint also stresses the fact that moral development stems from identification or internalization (Westen, 1996:561). In section 1.2 it was mentioned that </span><span lang="EN-GB">deep-rooted moral values (image-schematic in nature, therefore internalized) justified the ideology of apartheid. But these values linked with another moral emotion, namely empathy. Westen (1996: 561) points out that “(e)mpathy has both a cognitive component (understanding what the person is experiencing) and an emotional component (experiencing a similar feeling).” Goleman (1995:105) lays emphasis on the developmental stage when the most advanced level of empathy emerges, namely late childhood, “when children are able to understand distress beyond the immediate situation, and to see that someone’s condition or station in life may be a source of chronic distress”; at that stage “(t)hey feel for the plight of an entire group, such as the poor, the oppressed, the outcast.” </span><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Though Chris Louw only nuances love and hatred when he refers to emotion, it becomes clear, against the previous background, that his reference to the inhibition of emotion, as an ideological educational tool during his generation’s edification, intimately links with the containment of empathy. Empathy with the oppressed during the time of National Party rule marked a person as an Afrikaner-outsider. Louw’s present anger also relates to the fact that his actions during those days, when in his capacity as a senior journalist at a newspaper with National Party ties, he had to decide what Afrikaners may have read … and what not – in this manner manipulating them cognitively, emotionally and morally. In this way he actually assisted the selective repression of empathy, the emotional and psychological<span style="color: green;"> </span>identification with the oppressed. Thus, the practice of apartheid became internalized; it actually operated on a preconcetual image-schematic level, blocking out some shades of emotional experience. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> One reporter, Max du Preez, refers to this letter and the public reaction to it as a circus (<i>Beeld</i>: 16 May 2000). Such a comment actaully negates the fact that language usage reflects the intricate relation between cognitive, emotional and moral experiences, that language reveals the conceptualization of experiences, and that ideological ideals without a moral and emotional foundation would come to nothing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"> Without such a deep structure, efforts to categorize or recategorize people into a cohesive unity could be very difficult. And some activities exist at the moment for the regrouping of the Afrikaner. In view of the fact that the emotional and moral traumas of the past and the present are still very acute, and the application of presentday conceptual categorizing variables </span><span lang="EN-GB">to </span><span lang="EN-US">restructure the South African society</span><span lang="EN-GB"> are a traumatic experience for many people, initiatives in this regard should be applied very cautiously. The emotional experience of these variables are </span><span lang="EN-US">linked to the conceptual experience of words such as </span><i>affirmative action</i><span lang="EN-GB">, <i>racism</i>, <i>transformation</i>, <i>truth and reconciliation</i>, and</span><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><i>transition</i><span lang="EN-GB">. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Apparently such a cautious view was taken when the Group of 63 was initiated.<span style="color: green;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>2.3.3. Group 63</b><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">During the first weekend in May a group of 63 Afrikaans-speaking individuals (mostly from the intellectual world, and driven by philosophers) came together in a closed conference where they founded what they called the Group of 63. According to the newspapers they focused primarily on issues regarding the Afrikaans language and the rights of minorities. Leopold Scholtz, <i>Beeld</i> of 17 May 2000, considers one of the most striking features of this group its composition: people from the left to the right, from <i>verlig</i> (“enlightened”) to <i>verkramp</i> (“narrow-minded”) – in terms of the previous South Africa; these are </span><span lang="EN-US">distinguishing features</span><span lang="EN-GB"> which are at present totally irrelevant, accoring to this journalist (compare section 2.3.1.). In this regard Hermann Giliomee – one of the members of this group – stresses the fact that these individuals are not representative in nature, rather responsible regarding an inisiative to promote the Afrikaans language (<i>Beeld</i>, 9 May 2000). Only a few days after its foundation some of the individuals of Group 63 withdrew from the group. One of them, previously-mentioned Chris Louw, motivated his withdrawal on account of the fact that he felt that the group attempted to force him into a white minority enclosure, contrary to his expectations that the conference was aimed at language (<i>Beeld</i>, </span><span lang="EN-US">11 May 2000). </span><span lang="EN-GB">A few individuals from the group followed him in this regard. In his reaction to the withdrawal of some of its members, Johann Rossouw, chairman of the secriatariat, said that this phenomenon illustrates the fact that different people will go through a process for a while, while they are learning to know each other and each other’s agendas.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB">The establishment of the Group of 63 and the processes involved in the development of this group, is a good illustration of the above-mentioned schema-prototype features of a category. The identification of a prototype is a natural human conceptual tendency in order to identify a category, to talk about a category, to give meaning to a category, and to understand a category. The establishment of this specific group created a very vague schema, an abstract portrayal that is totally compatible with all the constituents of the category it describes (see Langacker [1987: 371]). In a short time since it came into exisistence, different attempts were made to find a prototype for this category – irespective of Herman Giliomee’s view that they are not representative in any way. </span><span lang="EN-US">Max du Preez, for instance, considers the intellectual deep structure of the group to be ethnic and chauvinistic (<i>Beeld</i>, 16 May 2000). In his motivation for the existence of such a group, the chairman of the working committee of the Group of 63 – Danie Goosen – describes their intended actions, thereby advancing the schema on which grounds a prototype could be established: enhancement of the recognition of language, educational and social-economic interests of minorities; establishment of cohesive ties between minorities; protection of the democratic ethos within the Afrikaans-speaking community.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> At this point in time the group finds itself in a schema-stage. Ongoing processes and developments will eventually create the prototype, should the group continue to exist. At this stage the prototypicality of the group is based on rationality, with some indication of morality. The language concern could become an emotional issue <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">3.<b> Conclusion<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">At this point in time South Africa is in transition. Spatial circumstances for individuals and most of the previously established white groups are changing significantly and rapidly – to an Afrocentric environment. A dramatic re-evaluation of the identity of the individual and his collective environment is taking place. This spatial experience – and mentally elaborated spatial experience – impacts on the identity of people. In this regard a perception of identity takes place in terms of then/there and now/here: <i>South Africa</i> (= the perception of a “previous” space) <i>before 1994</i> (= perception of a “previous” time) and <i>South Africa</i> (= the perception of a “current” space) <i>now</i> (= perception of a “present” time).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Language usage in terms of the preceding portrayal implies the three deictic coordinates; thus, the coordinates of existence; and in this regard it depends on the interrelated mental phenomena: sensation-perception-cognition, with emotion as a fundamental undertone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"> Against this background the dispersed nature of the presentday Afrikaner (as a group) was investigated. Reference was made to its previous (before 1994) identity: how the prototype of the Afrikaner developed during that time. On account of language usage (taken for the most part from newspapers) we analized efforts to recategorize the Afrikaner. We focused on the “peculiar” regrouping of former prototype- and Outsider-Afrikaners on account of shared aims regarding the langauge concern, and owing to the fact that presently the traditional prototype of the Afrikaner no longer exists.<span style="color: blue;"> </span>We drew attention to the present debate taking place amongst Afrikaners regarding its identity, and focused on the generation variable as a schema feature, and some of the emotional dimensions that came to light in this regard: a strong feeling of guilt and regret during and immediately after the hearings of the </span><span lang="EN-GB">South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission; verbal outbursts of anger regarding the past. A conclusion suggested that the Afrikaner lost its previous prototype and finds itself at present in a schema stage regarding its group status.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Up to this point in time most analists of the debate drew attention to the emotional dimensions involved, but overlooked its importance in terms of morality and its potential utilization with regard to regrouping – or, those who are involved in the process of regrouping, are very cautious not to exploit it due to the fact that (in my view) the exploitation of emotion sustained the morality of apartheid in the previous South Africa. This exploitation actually implied the suppression of different shades of empathy, a moral emotion; and it was endorsed by the moral agent of that time, the Church.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> And what now – regarding the Afrikaner? On account of perceptions revealed by language we can conclude:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The establishment of the Group of 63 may be perceived as a formal attempt to recategorise, to launch the creation of a new prototype. They are formulating their aims rather precise in relation to services to the community, the rights of minorities, and language rights. But they are very careful with regard to their representative nature. In an effort to make mental contact with potential “followers”, they have to take notice of the fact that their speech acts in this regard will have to consist of rational, but also emotional input (see Botha, to be published). Currently the language concern is probably the most important emotional variable – especially if its current diminishing status in the South African reality is taken into account. Negating the Constitution in this way to suppress Afrikaans, becomes a moral issue – and a moral issue can become a very vigorous emotional issue. But the utilization of the language’s emotional capabilities relies on a few other emotional phenomena: on account of its current status the Afrikaner, especially the younger generation, experiences an emotion of apathy with regard to the Afrikaans language; the emotional trauma of transition puts some Afrikaners on the alert – not to become emotionally involved again on a collective basis; mistrust on account of the doings of previous Afrikaner leaders also creates cautiousnes; and an Afrikaner diaspora and globalization hinders a consolidating structure on a mental basis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Consequently, it becomes impossible to delineate a colletive emotional mindset for the schema <i>Afrikaner</i>. All the different emotional experiences of the past and the present – as represented by letters of readers to newspapers and observations by analists – reveal different shades of different emotions (see Goleman, 1996), or, from a cognitive linguistic viewpoint, different emotional blends. At the moment peoples’ different shaded emotional reactions are creating these emotional blends. Some are trying to rationalize these reactions; others react with new emotional blends; and another group prefers to repudiate its existential significance. However, it remains an important precondition for mental contact on a colletive basis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Together with other variables, the emotional issue could impede the development of an Afrikaner prototype in the future – at least in the sense that it was known previously. </span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">REFERENCES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Botha, Willem J. 2000. <i>The Deictic Foundation of Ideology, with Reference to the African Renaissance</i>. In R. Dirven, B. Hawkins and E. Sandikcioglu (eds), <i>Language and Ideology: Cognitive Theoretical Approaches.</i> Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">De Klerk, Willem. 2000. Afrikaners moet bou aan ’n nuwer, groter Afrika-volk. In Perspektief, <i>Rapport</i>, 12 March 2000: 3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Dirven, René. 1994. <i>Metaphor and Nation. Metaphors Afrikaners live by</i>. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dirv</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">en, René, Hawkins, Bruce and Sandikcioglu, Esra (eds). 2000. <i>Language and Ideology: </i></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive Theoretical Approaches. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Du Preez, Max. 2000. As ons Groep van 63 se pad loop, word Afrikaner dalk staatsvyand. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Beeld</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">, 16 May 2000: Internet.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Giliomee, Hermann. 1999. Eeuwendings en bestaanskeuses vir wit Afrikaner-inboorlinge. <i>Aambeeld</i> 27, 1: 13-20.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Giliomee, Hermann. 2000. Eerder verantwoordelik as ‘verteenwoordigend’. In <i>Beeld</i>, 9 May 2000: 11.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Goleman, Daniel. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">1996. <i>Emotional Intelligence</i>. <i>Why it can matter more than IQ</i>. London: Bloomsbury.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Goosen, Danie. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2000. Groep wil 'tweede fase van SA se demokratiseringsproses' begin. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">In <i>Beeld</i>, 16 May 2000: Internet.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Hanks, Patrick, Thomas Hill Long & Laurence Urdang. 1979. <i>Collins Dictionary of the English Language</i>. London and Glasgow: Collins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Langacker, Ronald W. 1993. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Reference-point constructions. <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i> 4-1: 1-38.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Landman, Christina. 2000. <i>Prontuit</i> (discussion programme on DSTV: <i>Kyknet</i>). 4 May 2000.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Microsoft. 1996. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Excerpts from <i>The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition</i> © 1996 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Electronic version licensed from INSO Corporation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Nieuwoudt</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">, Stephanie. 2000. Lede onttrek reeds aan die nuwe groep vir taalvegters. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Beeld</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">, 11 May 2000: Internet. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Nieuwoudt</span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">, Stephanie. 2000. Groep van 63 'filosofies' oor onttrekkings. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Beeld</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">, 12 May 2000: Internet.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Pires de Oliveira, Roberta. 2000. “Language and ideology: An interview with George Lakoff”. In R. Dirven, B. Hawkins and E. Sandikcioglu (eds), <i>Language and Ideology: Cognitive Theoretical Approaches.</i> Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Psigiater. 2000. Wimpie se jong Afrikaners is moeg, sat en desperaat. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Beeld</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">, 27 April 2000: 8.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Scholtz, Leopold. </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2000. Die Groep van 63. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Beeld</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">, 17 May 2000: 10.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Taylor, John R. 1995. <i>Linguistic Categorization. Prototypes in Linguistic Theory</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 2000. <i>Truth. The Road to Reconciliation</i>. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">(Internet: <a href="http://www.truth.org.za/"><span style="color: black; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: black;">http://www.truth.org.za/</span></a>), 6 May 2000.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Verhoef, Grietjie. 1999. Afrikanergeskiedenis inperspektief. <i>Aambeeld</i> 27, 2: 29-34.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Westen, Drew. 1996. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Psychology. Mind</span></i><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">, Brain, & Culture</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. New York: John Wiley & Sons.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="file:///C:/Users/Willie/Dropbox/Word-dokumentasie/O%20Navorsing/A-South%20Africa%20and%20its%20categories05.rtf#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> A prominent theologist in South Africa, Christina Landman, used the term <i>moral agent of morality</i> in a television discussion programme on <i>Kyknet</i> (DSTV) on 4 May 2000. She also made the statement that the Church presently only acts as one of the moral agents in a new South Africa due to the fact that they lost a lot of their credibility in this regard. </span></span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-89466398348036576832016-11-25T07:34:00.002+02:002016-11-25T15:40:43.606+02:00Identiteit, die Afrikaner en Afrikaans<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0cm; text-align: center;">
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<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b><br />
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<b><span lang="NL">Identiteit, die Afrikaner en Afrikaans</span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Willem J. Botha – emeritusprofessor (taalkundige – semantikus): RAU/UJ<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="NL">Inleiding<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL"> “Ek is Bart Nel van toe af, en ek is nog hy.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">“Maar julle, ... , wie, sê julle, is Ek?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">“I a</span><span lang="EN-US">m a man.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“Ich bin ein Berliner.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">“I am an African.”<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Die bostaande redelik bekende aanhalings is identiteitsuitdrukkings. Die woorde van Bart Nel dui op die ervaring van ’n oënskynlik onveranderde eie identiteit, ten spyte van die trauma van materiële en psigiese verlies tydens die rebellie van 1914. In die tweede voorbeeld (Matteus 16:15) word Jesus se woorde aan sy dissipels aangehaal te midde van verskeie uiteenlopende standpunte oor sy identiteit. Die derde aanhaling het op baniere voorgekom toe betogers vir menseregte in die VSA in 1968 vir hulle regte betoog het, eintlik vir ’n miskende groepsidentiteit in vergelyking met bepaalde identiteitsopvattings binne die Amerikaanse gemeenskap gedurende daardie tydperk. In 1961 verwoord President John F. Kennedy in ’n toespraak die Weste se verbintenis tot, en identiteitsvereenselwiging met, die Berlyners in die woorde van die vierde aanhaling. Dit het plaasgevind na die destydse oprigting van die Berlynmuur en die Weste probeer verhoed het dat Wes-Berlyn totaal geïsoleer word. Tydens die aanvaarding van die Suid-Afrikaanse Grondwet het die toenmalige adjunkpresident Thabo Mbeki op 8 Mei 1996 sy nou bekende toespraak gehou ter bevordering van ’n Afrika-identiteit, te midde van ’n hele spektrum sub-identiteite binne die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap. Die vyfde aanhaling kom uit dié betrokke toespraak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="NL">Identiteit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL">Op die keper beskou, berus die ervaring van en die beskouing oor identiteit op die beginsel van vergelyking, soos blyk uit die voorgaande aangehaalde voorbeelde. Dit is ’n beginsel wat ook deurgaans geld vir kategorisering (dus: begripsvorming). Verskillende verklarende woordeboeke se betekenisbeskrywings in hierdie verband onderskryf dit – eksplisiet of by implikasie, byvoorbeeld: “recognize” (in ooreenstemming met ’n eksplisiete of versweë kriterium), “absolute sameness” (geprojekteer ten opsigte van ’n eksemplariese norm), “an instance or example” (geabstraheer uit ’n bepaalde versameling), “volkome ooreenstemming” (in ooreenstemming met ’n bepaalde kriterium), “eigen karakter, het individuele kenmerk” (geabstraheer uit ’n bepaalde versameling), en ander soortgelyke beskrywings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Drie kognitiewe prosesse word by implikasie hierin betrek, naamlik ’n evaluerende, reflekterende en projekterende ervaring van identiteit. Hierdie belewenis van identiteit bring die onderskeiding van veral twee identiteitsvlakke na vore: ervaring van identiteit ten opsigte van die ego (self), en identiteit in verhouding tot die groep. Die ego-belewenis hang saam met ’n bewuste ervaring van die menslike bestaanskoördinate, naamlik die ek in tyd-ruimtelike samehang, terwyl groepbelewenis na die ervaring van (die eie of ander se) rolle en funksies binne bepaalde groeperinge verwys. Afhangend van die persoonlikheidsaard van die bepaalde individu sal eersgenoemde waarskynlik minder veranderlik as laasgenoemde wees, alhoewel die intrinsieke verhouding van die twee identiteitsvlakke nie hierdeur ontken word nie. Identiteitsdinamiek, die wye toepassingspektrum en die relatiewe konseptuele lading van bepaalde identiteitsbegrippe verhoog die kompleksiteit daarvan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">’n Verdere aspek wat in gedagte gehou moet word, is die feit dat die voorgenoemde ervaring van identiteit (en dus ook die rolle wat daarmee saamhang) veral op die vlak van die kognitiewe onbewuste lê. </span><span lang="EN-US">Binne hierdie vlak identifiseer Oakley (1998:357) die sogenaamde generiese ruimte as die bron waaruit sodanige ervaring spruit: “a distinct mental space operating at a low level of description which can provide the category, frame, role, identity, or image-schematic rationale for cross-domain mapping.” </span><span lang="NL">Die vermelding van “cross-domain mapping” suggereer nie net die vergelykingsbasis van identiteit nie, maar stippel ook die fundamentele werking van die metafoor uit – ’n belangrike begripsmeganisme vir onder andere identiteit. Dit moet saamgelees word met Lakoff en Johnson (1997) se uitspraak ten opsigte van die drie belangrikste bevindinge van die kognitiewe wetenskap in die sewentigerjare van die vorige eeu, naamlik: “The mind is inherently embodied. Thought is mostly unconscious. Abstract concepts are largely metaphorical.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Die voorgaande metafooruitspraak hang saam met die ingrypende bevinding dat die metafoor ook onder die taalvlak funksioneer – dat die menslike verstand oor ’n verskeidenheid algemene konseptuele metafore beskik op grond waarvan abstrakte begrippe ten opsigte van konkreter (veral ruimtelike) begrippe verstaan word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Omdat die verwysing na tale (hier Afrikaans) berus op ontologiese metaforiese benoeming, dien die volgende voorbeelde as illustrasie van hoedat konseptuele metafore onder die taalvlak funksioneer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Vergelyk hoedat algemeen menslike ervarings van inhoudsvullers, inhoudshouers, instrumente en krag (geïmpliseer deur die gekursiveerde frases) byvoorbeeld onderskeidelik as konseptuele bron dien vir die verstaan van die volgende liefdemetafore in die Bybel:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">“Niemand het God nog ooit gesien nie, maar as ons mekaar liefhet, bly God in ons en het sy liefde <i>in ons</i> [= <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n inhoudsvuller</span>] sy doel volkome bereik.” (1 Johannes 4:12)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">“En ons ken die liefde wat God vir ons het, en ons glo daarin. God is liefde; wie <i>in die liefde</i> [= <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n</span> <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">inhoudshouer</span>] bly, bly in God en God bly in hom.” (1 Johannes 4:16)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">“Hiérin het die liefde sy doel volkome met ons bereik: ons het niks te vrees vir die oordeelsdag nie, want in hierdie wêreld lewe ons reeds <i>deur die liefde</i> [= <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n instrument</span>] net soos Jesus.” (1 Johannes 4:17)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">“Die liefde van Christus <i>dring</i> [= <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n krag</span>] ons, omdat ons tot die insig gekom het dat een vir almal gesterwe het, en dit beteken dat almal gesterwe het.” (2 Korintiërs 5:14)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Genoemde konseptuele metafore is enkeles uit die Bybel wat saam met ander (byvoorbeeld <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n besitting</span> – 1 Korinthiërs 13:2; <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n geskenk</span> – Hooglied 7:12; <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">liefde is ’n offer</span> – 1 Johannes 3:16; ens.) optree om ’n konseptuele konstellasie te vorm wat uiteindelik ook instrumenteel is in die verstaan van die abstraksie <i>God</i> in die taalmetafoor “God is liefde” (1 Johannes 4:8; 1 Johannes 4:16 ).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> In die geval van Afrikaans is dit belangrik om daarvan kennis te neem omdat daar toenemend implisiet na Afrikaans as blokkasie/obstruksie verwys word in aantygings dat Afrikaans uitsluit of dat Afrikaans in die weg van transformasie staan. Herhaling en oorbeklemtoning van sulke aantygings vestig op die kognitiewe onbewuste vlak ’n kognitiewe stempel (“imprint”) op grond waarvan ’n diverse aantal taalmetafore tot stand kan kom, wat op hulle beurt weer die stempel [konseptuele metafoor: <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">Afrikaans is ’n obstruksie/ blokkasie</span>] versterk. Dit is onder andere ook hoedat propaganda funksioneer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Lakoff en Johnson (1997) benadruk die konseptuele aard van die metafoor as hulle sê: “(t)he linguistic function of metaphor is secondary. </span><span lang="EN-US">It depends on the conceptual use of metaphorical mappings across conceptual domains.” Taal is egter die toegangsroete tot en die abstraheringsroete uit die kognitiewe onbewuste – “the vast system of concepts and cognitive mechanisms that operates beneath the level of consciousness, structuring both our experience and our mode of conceptualizing the world”, volgens Lakoff en Johnson (1997). Ooreenstemmend nuanseer Langacker (1993:1) die intrinsieke verhouding tussen taal en denke as hy sê: “(F)undamental cognitive abilities and experientially derived cognitive models have direct and pervasive linguistic manifestations, and, conversely, … language structure furnishes important clues concerning basic mental phenomena.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="NL">Beheersende punt (“vantage point”)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL">Een van </span><span lang="EN-US">die</span><span lang="NL"> belangrikste veranderlikes vir die beoordeling (en ervaring) van identiteit is die perspektief waaruit dit konseptueel (en dus ook talig) ervaar of beskou word. Eintlik moet ons liewer van beheersende punt praat omdat oriëntasie en beheersende<i> </i>punt elemente van perspektief is, en beheersende punt ’n enger gesigspunt impliseer wat saamhang met die konseptualiseerder se ruimtelike oriëntasie, ’n </span><span lang="NL-BE">punt wat ook getransponeer kan word na psigiese ruimte. Dit is in ooreenstemming met Langacker (1990:5) se beskouing dat oriëntasie en beheersende<i> </i>punt elemente van perspektief is. </span><span lang="NL">Vergelyk byvoorbeeld die perspektiefverskuiwings in die aangehaalde voorbeelde in die inleiding: Bart Nel se tydsperspektief verskuif van <i>toe</i> na <i>nou</i>; Jesus vra ’n perspektiefoordeel van <i>julle</i> in plaas van <i>hulle</i>; die 1968-betogers dring aan op ’n “ruimtelike” perspektiefverskuiwing – van buite die identiteitskategorie tot binne die kategorie; President John F. Kennedy se vereenselwiging met die Berlyners bring ’n geprojekteerde Berlynse perspektief mee; Mbeki verskuif sy perspektief vanuit ’n sub-identiteit na ’n globale identiteit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="NL">Afrikaans en die Afrikaner<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL">Die relatiewe kompleksiteit van bepaalde identiteite maak die perspektiefervaring daarvan in ’n sekere sin voor die hand liggend omdat bepaalde ervarings of beskouings van ’n komplekse identiteit hoegenaamd nie al die begripsdimensies daarvan kan ondervang nie en uiteindelik berus op individuele seleksie deur die betrokke konseptualiseerder. So ’n komplekse identiteit is byvoorbeeld dié van die Afrikaner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> Voordat die verhouding tussen Afrikaans en die Afrikaner onder die loep geneem kan word, is dit egter eers nodig om iets oor die grammatikale herkoms van die woord <i>Afrikaans</i> te sê. Die woord <i>Afrikaans</i> is gedurende die tydperk wat algemeen beskou word as die ontstaansjare van Afrikaans na aanleiding van Nederlands gebruik as ’n adjektief wat “behorende tot Afrika” beteken het. Deur benoeming van die spesifieke taal-in-wording het die adjektief funksiewisseling ondergaan en ’n gedeadjektiveerde naamwoord geword. Afgeleide adjektiewe van die totstandgekome naamwoord <i>Afrikaans</i> het daarna betekenisvervanging en betekenisuitbreiding ondergaan sodat die Afrikaanse gebruik van die woord <i>Afrikaanse</i> nie meer “behorende tot Afrika” beteken het nie, maar dat dit dui op taalverwante benoemings soos <i>Afrikaanse boeke</i>, <i>Afrikaanse skole</i> ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Teen die agtergrond van die feit dat die woord <i>Afrikaans</i> eers net lokaliteitsaanduider was, illustreer die volgende kort oorsig dat die taal Afrikaans aanvanklik nie ’n wesenlike definiërende onderdeel van Afrikaneridentiteit was nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Aanvanklik (in die sewentiende eeu) word die woorde <i>Africaan</i>, <i>Africaander</i> en <i>Africaner</i> in die Kaapse stukke uitsluitend gebruik in die sin van “naturel” of “inlander”. Later word die begrip verryk met eksplisiete ruimtelike en etniese begripstoevoegings in die <i>Patriot</i>-definisie: “white man born in Africa”. Eers later word die begrip “Afrikaans” toegevoeg omdat daar aanvanklik ook heelwat konseptuele verwarring oor dié taalbegrip geheers het. Van der Merwe (1972:16) twyfel byvoorbeeld of die benaming “Afrikaans” hoegenaamd in die agtiende eeu reeds bekend was. Verskeie perspektiewe het verskillende benoemings tot gevolg gehad. Daar is byvoorbeeld vroeër van “Kaaps-Hollands” gepraat. Dié woord is gebruik om die dialek of “variant van Hollands op Kaapse bodem” te benoem – later verkort tot “Kaaps”. Gedurende hierdie tyd (voor 1850) verskyn daar ook enkele wisselvorme daarvoor – ’n illustrasie van verskillende perspektiewe: “de Afrikaansch-Hollandsche taal”, “Bastaard-Hollandsch” en “Boeren-Kaapsch”. Na die Groot Trek die binneland in en met die stigting van die Boererepublieke sou die geografiese verwysing “Kaaps” egter te eng wees en onder Afrikaansgesindes self nie meer byval vind nie. Namate die benaming “Kaaps-Hollands” onder Afrikaansgesindes begin verdwyn het, het dit buite die groep en by buitelanders bly vassteek. Nienaber (1949:98-100) wys daarop dat dit afgewissel is met ’n waarde-beoordelende benaming soos “Plat-Hollands” en skriftelike benoemings soos “Transvaals” (1887), “Afrikaander Taal” (1901), “The Taal” (na 1902), “Burensprache” (1904), “Boer Dutch” (ongeveer 1904), “Le Langue des Boers” (1911) en “Zuid-Afrikaansch”. Ten opsigte van die ideologiese begripsinhoud van Afrikaneridentiteit het Afrikaans as identiteitskenmerk dus aanvanklik nie gefigureer nie. ’n Taalbewussyn word by implikasie eintlik eers sedert 1870 gevoed, in die aanloop tot die eerste Taalbeweging.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Die ideologiese identiteitsbewussyn is ook gevoed deur bepaalde emosionele ervarings. Van Jaarsveld (1980:222) noem byvoorbeeld dat die anneksasie van Transvaal en die Eerste Vryheidsoorlog “elektriese skokke” was wat “deur die hart van alle Afrikaners gegaan het” en “’n gedagtestelsel” laat ontstaan het “waarin die Afrikanervolk as ’n geestelike eenheid sentraal gestel is”. Verdere historiese gebeurtenisse, politieke en kulturele ontwikkeling en die invloed van die kerk het die kompleksiteit van die identiteitsbegrip ‘Afrikaner’ verhoog. Uiteindelik het die begrip te ruim voorsiening gemaak vir enige individu om volledig daarin opgeneem te kon word. Politieke, religieuse en kulturele kragte het meegebring dat ’n bepaalde perspektief uiteindelik dié Afrikaneridentiteit moes ondervang. ’n Verbrokkeling van dié identiteitsperspektief was onafwendbaar na 1994. Op 9 Mei 2000 verwoord Chris Louw enkele van die konformerende wesenskenmerke van die genoemde dominante perspektief wanneer hy sê ons “is mos grootgemaak om ons emosies te beteuel” ... “om gesien en nie gehoor te word nie, om opdragte uit te voer sonder teëspraak” ... “om ... ons lewe op te offer vir ons land en vir die Groter Saak”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="NL">Woordeboekdefinisies van die woord <i>Afrikaner</i><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL">Die feit dat die belewenis en beskouing van identiteit – en hier Afrikaneridentiteit – ’n beheersendepuntverskynsel is, word ook duidelik geïllustreer indien verskillende woordeboekdefinisies van die woord <i>Afrikaner </i>vergelyk word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">Van die eerste </span><span lang="NL">pogings</span><span lang="NL-BE"> om die kategorie “Afrikaner” formeel te omskryf, kom van die <i>Patriot-Woordeboek</i>, wat die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> in 1902 soos volg beskryf: “white man born in Africa”. Vroeëre woordeboeke, soos die <i>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal</i> wat in 1882 gepubliseer is, bevat nog nie die inskrywing <i>Afrikaner</i> nie. Die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> kom wel in Van Dale sedert 1917 voor: “in Zuid-Afrika geboren blanke van Europeeschen oorsprong”. Van die Afrikaanse taal is daar hoegenaamd geen sprake nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">Voor en tydens die Anglo-Boereoorlog (1899 tot 1902) is die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> afwisselend ten opsigte van die woord <i>Boer</i> gebruik, verwysende na ’n “Hollandsch sprekende kolonist van Zuid-Afrika, inzonderheid die van de Transvaal en de Oranje-Vrijstaat”, volgens Van Dale in 1917. Vir die eerste keer kom taal ter sprake – en steeds nie Afrikaans nie, maar dan ten opsigte van die kategorie wat as “Boer” geklassifiseer is. Die <i>Afrikaner</i>-definisie in die 1999-uitgawe van die <i>Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal</i> beklemtoon steeds etnisiteit en ruimtelikheid, én die Boereverwantskap – met taal steeds nie as ’n definiërende faktor nie: “vooral in Z.-Afrika gebezigde aanduiding van een in Z-Afrika geboren blanke, m.n. van Boerenafkomst”. Daarnaas beskryf <i>Van Dale groot woordenboek van hedendaagse Nederlands</i> (1984) slegs etnisiteit en ruimtelikheid met die volgende definisie: “blanke in Zuid-Afrika”. Die <i>Van Dale handwoordenboek der Nederlandse taal</i> (1982) voeg verwantskap by met die beskrywing “blanke burger van Z.-Afrika, inz. van Boerenafkomst.” Die supplement by die eerste deel van die<i> Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal</i> se 1956-definisie verswyg in die eerste gedeelte steeds Afrikaans, maar benadruk etnisiteit, lokaliteit en Boereverwantskap in verhouding tot “Nederlandsch” (tussen aanhalingstekens!), wat waarskynlik dui op die twyfelagtige Nederlandsstatus van die betrokke taal. Die inskrywing in die betrokke woordeboek het egter ook ’n tweede gedeelte waarin daar wel melding gemaak word van Afrikaans.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">In die bostaande betekenisbeskrywings word die kategorie “Afrikaner” redelik vaag geformuleer: veral volgens lokaliteit/sublokaliteit, etnisiteit, herkoms en verwantskap, terwyl daar slegs in die tweede gedeelte van die definisie van die <i>WNT</i>-supplement van Afrikaans sprake is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">Die afwesigheid van die Afrikaanse taal as ’n definiërende eienskap kan daaraan toegeskryf word dat die <i>Patriot</i>-definisie ’n tydperk verreken waarbinne die eerste Taalbeweging nog nie ’n besondere impak gehad het nie, terwyl die ander definisies, in die mate waarin hulle taal erken, vassteek by Nederlands/Hollands se Suid-Afrikaanse status, en die amptelike erkenning van Afrikaans sedert 1925 nie eksplisiet verreken word nie. Die <i>WNT</i>-supplement onthul ook ’n ideologiese ondertoon met die beskrywing van ’n emosionele belewenis met die bewoording “hen die … zich Afrikaansch voelden”. Laasgenoemde definisie impliseer ook ’n “konseptuele versmelting” van Afrikaans en die Afrikaner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">Afgesien van die <i>WNT</i>-supplement verswyg die Nederlandse woordeboeke deurgaans die Afrikaanse taal as ’n kenmerk van die Afrikaner. Dit kom, daarenteen, in die bekendste Afrikaanse woordeboeke as ’n kardinale onderdeel van die betekenisbeskywing van die woord voor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">Uit die </span><span lang="NL-BE">voorgaande</span><span lang="NL-BE"> oorsig blyk dit dat die konsep “Afrikaans”, onder andere vanweë die ontkenning van sy outonome status as taal, aanvanklik nie heg met die konsep “Afrikaner” verbind is nie. In ’n artikel getiteld “Het Afrikaans” (soos opgeneem in Nienaber, 1984) verkies Mansvelt in 1880 byvoorbeeld om konsekwent na die taal te verwys as “Kaapsch Hollands” en selfs “Kaapsch” (in sy eie woorde: “alias ‘Die Afrikaanse Taal’”), terwyl hy deurgaans na die sprekers daarvan verwys as “de Afrikaander”, en selfs by geleentheid skryf van “een Afrikaansch volk”, laasgenoemde waarskynlik eerder in die sin van ’n geografiese verwysing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">Mansvelt se “Afrikaander”-verwysing hou waarskynlik ook verband met die feit dat die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> se verwysingsbestek teen die middel van die negentiende eeu meer as net blankes ingesluit het. Von Wielligh (1925: 35) onderskei byvoorbeeld ’n destydse driedeling onder bruin mense, naamlik “Slamaaiers”, “Malbare” (met steil hare) en die “Afrikaner-volk” (met kroeshare), en volgens hom het die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> vir ’n blanke vanaf die eerste Taalbeweging ’n vaste vorm aangeneem. Van Besten (persoonlike mededeling) wys daarop dat alreeds in die agtiende eeu <i>Afrikaner</i> ’n naam kon wees: <i>Hottentot Africaner</i>/<i>Hottentot Afrikaaner</i>, <i>Afrikaner</i>; en later ’n van, <i>Jager Afrikaner</i>, maar ook ’n term ter klassifikasie: “slaaven jongen Andries, dewelke een africaner is”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE">Voor en </span><span lang="NL-BE">tydens</span><span lang="NL-BE"> die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog (1899-1902) is die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> ook afwisselend ten opsigte van die etnoniem <i>Boer</i> (verwysende na Afrikaners van die twee Boererepublieke) gebruik, wat volgens Ponelis (1998:19) onder Engelse invloed aanvanklik as ’n skeldnaam ontstaan het. In hierdie stadium was die woord <i>Afrikaner</i> konseptueel nog nie so sterk deur Afrikanernasionalisme gevoed nie, ook omdat die intrinsieke verhouding tussen die konsepte “Afrikaans” en “Afrikaner” nog nie so heg was nie. Daarom ook dat die kategorie, volgens die destydse woordeboeke, ’n omvattender verwysingspektrum gehad het. Die konseptuele voedingsbron sou later veral in twee afgeleide konsepte lê, geleksikaliseer as <i>Afrikanerskap</i> en <i>Afrikanerdom</i> – met noodwendige inperking van die verwysingspektrum en normatiewe prototipeskematiserings vir insluiting of uitsluiting met betrekking tot die kategorie “Afrikaner”. Die talle implikasies van sodanige skematiserings sal nie hier verder bespreek word nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="NL">Oorvleueling van identiteite<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL">Beskutting teen ’n </span><span lang="NL-BE">postmoderne</span><span lang="NL"> wêreld is na 1994 grootliks opgehef, wat ook die konseptuele inperking van ’n dominante Afrikaner-identiteitsperspektief laat verbrokkel het. Dit het gepaard gegaan met ’n dramatiese verandering van die <i>status quo.</i> Sonder ’n bepaalde taalbelewenis sou dit nie moontlik gewees het nie. Dink maar aan die impak wat die <i>wigte en teenwigte</i>-metafoor gehad het tydens die onderhandelingsfase vir ’n nuwe Suid-Afrikaanse bedeling. </span><span lang="EN-US">Black (1962:42) merk tereg op dat “shifts in attitude ... regularly result from the use of metaphorical language.” </span><span lang="NL">Na 1994 het baie Afrikaners oor die aarde verstrooi geraak en baie Afrikaners was ontnugter. Dit het meegebring dat vanuit nuwe ruimtelike en psigiese beheersende punte na dié identiteitskwessie gekyk is en word. Die Afrikanerdebat het nuwe insigte en dimensies na vore gebring.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">’n Aspek wat met perspektief saamhang en die begrip <i>identiteit</i> verder kompliseer, hou verband met die interseksie van identiteite. Identiteite oorvleuel dikwels in so ’n mate dat morfologiese manipulasie by benoeming van dieselfde referent soms drastiese gevolge kan hê. Vergelyk byvoorbeeld die betekenisverskil ten opsigte van <i>Duitse Jode</i> en <i>Joodse Duitsers</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">In die bedeling wat in Suid-Afrika tot stand gekom het na 1994, gebaseer op ’n vervangde ideologiese raamwerk, het die interseksie van identiteite meegebring in die sin dat selfbenoeming of kategoriebenoeming van ander ten opsigte van Afrikaansmoedertaalsprekers op grond van vereenselwiging drieledig geskied het: <i>Afrikaan</i>, <i>Afrikaner</i>, <i>Suid-Afrikaner</i>. Laasgenoemde is ’n meer neutrale benoeming op grond van burgerskap, maar word deur heelwat Afrikaansmoedertaalsprekers bo <i>Afrikaner</i> verkies om hulle te ontdaan van die (volgens hulle regverdige) stigmatisering van die woord <i>Afrikaner</i>. Hierdeur voel hulle om welke rede ook al “losgemaak” van die Afrikanerkategorie. Tesame met pejoratiewe etiketterings op grond van sommiges se negatiewe belewenis van die simbole “Afrikaans” / “Afrikaner” – en ook argumente ter ondersteuning van die uitbreiding van Engels as <i>linqua franca</i> – is dit tans van die ingrypendste werktuie in die redusering van Afrikaans se hoër funksies. Daar is (veral jonger) Afrikaansmoedertaalsprekendes wat hulle wil ontdaan van die taal Afrikaans omdat hulle dit beskou as een van die definiërende eienskappe van die kategorie “Afrikaner” waarmee hulle nie vereenselwig wil word nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">’n Ander goeie illustrasie van die interseksie van identiteite is te vind in Mbeki se <i>I am an African</i>-toespraak. In die genoemde toespraak vereenselwig Mbeki hom deur die gebruik van die eerstepersooonvoornaamwoord <i>ek</i> baie intiem met verskillende sub-identiteite van ’n multikulturele en multi-etniese Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing deur onder andere die volgende uitdrukkings te gebruik: “I owe me being to the Khoi and San …; I am formed of the migrant who left Europe …; I am the grandchild of the warrior men and women …; I am the grandchild who lays fresh flowers on the Boer graves of St. Helena …; I come of those who were transported from India and China …” Deur sy perspektiefverskuiwings noop hy die aangesprokenes om konseptuele aanpassings te maak. Die bogenoemde taaluitdrukkings bewerkstellig dat die konseptuele integrasie van verskillende groepidentiteite gekarteer word op die ego-identiteit van die spreker. Die taaluitdrukking “I am an African” (binne die toespraakkonteks retories gebruik) onderlê dan uiteindelik ’n konseptuele metafoor wat die identiteit van <i>Afrikaan</i> via die <i>ek</i> na sub-identiteite van ’n diverse Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap projekteer. Soos wat dit die geval is met Afrikaneridentiteit, lê hierdie taalstrategie by implikasie die emosionele dimensie van groepsidentiteit bloot – want identiteit word ook gevoel!<span style="color: #c00000;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Die ervaring van Afrikaans as simbool is hier bo genoem. Identiteit is nie los te dink van die simbole waarmee dit saamhang nie – sy dit beelde, ikone, slagspreuke, of wat ook al. Met verwysing na die terreuraanval van 11 September 2001 wys Lakoff (2001) byvoorbeld daarop dat die beelde wat ons sien en ervaar in ’n intrinsieke verhouding tot ons metafoorsisteem staan, ’n sisteem wat konseptuele metafore onderlê en dus ook op verskeie wyses in taal neerslag vind. In die volgende woorde beskryf hy hoedat die genoemde gebeurtenis konseptueel ’n bepaalde segment van die Amerikaanse identiteit aangetas het:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“The World Trade Center was a potent symbol, tied into our understanding of our country and ourselves in a myriad of ways. All of what we know is physically embodied in our brains. To incorporate the new knowledge requires a physical change in the synapses of our brains, a physical reshaping of our neural system. The physical violence was not only in New York and Washington. Physical changes – violent ones – have been made to the brains of all Americans.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Soortgelyk mag dit wees dat Afrikaans as negatiewe simbool by sommiges ook dieselfde impak mag gehad het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="NL">Slotwoord<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="NL">In die voorgaande uiteensetting is betoog dat die ervaring van identiteit op die beginsel van vergelyking berus, dat identiteit vanuit ’n bepaalde beheersende punt gedefinieer word, dat konseptuele metafore meestal die taalvergestalting daarvan onderlê, en dat daar ’n hegte verband bestaan tussen die ervaringsbasis van beelde (simbole), identiteit en taal. Maar een vraag is nog onbeantwoord gelaat: Wat is die inherente aard van dít wat vergelykend beleef word, geperspektiveer word, of gekonseptualiseer word? Kortom: wat is die aard van die bestanddele (definiërende eienskappe) van ’n kollektiewe identiteit? ’n Onvolledige inventaris sou kon insluit: gemeenskaplike verbondenheid aan lokaliteit, gemeenskaplike geloofsoortuigings, gemeenskaplike optredes, gemeenskaplike houdings, gemeenskaplike voorkoms, gemeenskaplike gedragspatrone, gemeenskaplike gewoontes, gemeenskaplike denkwyses, ensovoorts, ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Taal maak egter daarvoor voorsiening dat ons ’n kognitiewe greep op hierdie abstrakte begrip kan kry deur ons ervaring van identieit ’n metafoorervaring te maak. Die woord <i>identiteit</i> is self ’n metafoor – so ook die benoemings van individuele identiteite. Lakoff en Johnson (1980:461) noem sodanige metafore fisiese metafore, ook bekend as ontologiese metafore (’n metafoorbenoeming wat ook vroeër in hierdie betoog vermeld is) – ’n soort konseptuele metafoor. Hierdie soort metafoor beeld entiteit- of substansiestatus af op begrippe wat inherent nie daaroor beskik nie, soos die genoemde versameling uiteenlopende kenmerke van identiteit. Sodanige metafore stel ons dan in staat om op grond van die kunsmatige grense wat op hierdie entiteite geprojekteer is, die tersaaklike begripsinhoude talig (dus in grammatikale strukture) op verskillende maniere te hanteer: om dit onder andere te kwantifiseer, te subkategoriseer, te verklein, te besit en te kwalifiseer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> En dit is presies wat in die verlede en tans met Afrikaans gebeur. As metafoor-entiteit word dit verder gepersonifieer as sou dit oor menslike eienskappe beskik om te verdruk, uit te sluit en te blokkeer. Selfs al word dit as werktuig in die hande van ’n agent beskou, bly die metafoorstatus daarvan prominent gehou as ’n geobjektiveerde negatiewe fokuspunt.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> In die verlede was die Afrikaans-metafoor (as simbool) ook teenoorgesteld funksioneel in die instandhouding van ’n Afrikanerskapkategorie en is bepaalde individue voorgehou as sou hulle beste voorbeelde (prototipes) van die kategorie “Afrikaner” wees. Daar het egter nog nooit ’ń prototipiese Afrikaner bestaan nie op grond van die feit dat daar hoogstens ’n prototipeskema vir die kategorie ontwikkel is en geen enkele individu volkome die skema sou kon verteenwoordig nie. Die taal Afrikaans was egter een van die dominante definiërende eienskappe van die skema, maar nie ’n gewaarborge eienskap vir insluiting tot die kategorie soos beskou en geëvalueer vanuit ’n bepaalde dominante beheersende punt nie. Daarom was daar en is daar randfigure op die grense van die kategorie. ’n Geglobaliseerde en sekulêre wêreld en ’n nuwe ideologiese raamwerk waarbinne die Afrikaner (binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks) hom tans bevind, tesame met die gestigmatiseerde status van Afrikaans, Afrikaner en Afrikanerskap, het nuwe beheersende punte tot gevolg – beheersende punte wat moet dien as vertrekpunte vir die moontlike identifiserende veranderlikes vir ’n nuwe groepsidentiteit vir Afrikaansmoedertaalsprekers. Uiteraard sal sodanige kollektiewe identiteit moet losstaan van bepaalde groepe se unieke ideologieë, waardes en ander <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="A1"></a>groepsbepalende veranderlikes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> Daar bestaan waarskynlik nog oorblyfsels van Afrikanernasionalisme binne bepaalde Afrikaanse kultuurorganisasies – en dit is nie noodwendig verkeerd nie, want die meeste van hulle deel nog die gemene deler Afrikaans wat ook die die bindingsfaktor van die eertydse Afrikanerkategorie was, gemeet aan die eise van Afrikanerskap. Word die Afrikaansmoedertaalsprekers se emosionele Afrikaansverbondenheid egter op ’n kontinuum beoordeel wat strek vanaf Afrikaans-weersin deur Afrikaans-apatie tot Afrikaans-passie, het die pendulum waarskynlik grootliks weg van ’n passie oor Afrikaans geswaai, veral by jonger mense wat aan ’n ander interpretasie van die Afrikanergeskiedenis blootgestel is – sou ’n mens gerapporteerde studentemenings as ’n maatstaf kon neem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> Die leemte vir Afrikaans wat deur die verbrokkelende ideologie van Afrikanerskap gelaat is, word waarskynlik tans sonder ideologiese bagasie gevul deur die Afrikaanse Taalraad, geweeg aan hulle visie/missie-stelling: </span><span lang="EN-US">“Kernwaardes: Eenheid in diversiteit: Die Afrikaanse gemeenskap deur die ATR tot ʼn eenheid saamgesnoer. Integriteit: In ons interne en eksterne verhoudinge behandel ons alle mense met respek, opregtheid en eerlikheid. Inklusiwiteit: Die ATR is ʼn inklusiewe organisasie wat alle mense saamsnoer rondom Afrikaans.” (</span><span style="color: #2e74b5; mso-ansi-language: AF; mso-fareast-language: AF;"><a href="http://afrikaansetaalraad.co.za/"><span style="color: #2e74b5;">http://afrikaansetaalraad.co.za/</span></a></span>).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Tans en in die toekoms gaan die ATR waarskynlik ’n baie belangrike rol ten opsigte van die toekoms van Afrikaans se hoër funksies speel.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Dit is egter nodig om ten spyte van die ATR se lofwaardige werk ander faktore te noem wat Afrikaans nie ten goede kom nie, waarvan enkeles genoem word.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="color: #c00000; mso-ansi-language: NL;"> </span><span lang="NL">Daar is ander besluitnemers (in verskillende politieke en institusionele rolle) wat die toekoms van Afrikaans se hoër funksies in die verlede, tans en in die toekoms bepaal het, bepaal en sal bepaal. Van hulle is nie moedertaalsprekers van Afrikaans nie, ander wel. Daar bestaan rede om te glo dat van die Afrikaansmoedertaalsprekers wat hulle in hierdie rolle bevind, die opvatting huldig dat </span><span lang="EN-US">taal slegs ’n kommunikasiemedium is, wat natuurlik ’n ongekompliseerde besluit ten opsigte van Afrikaans vir hulle moontlik en maklik maak – ten koste van Afrikaans!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> Die gebruik van Afrikaans geskied egter nie net op hoërfunksievlak nie. Op die algemene gebruiksvlak bestaan daar l</span><span lang="NL">ekemenings oor Afrikaans wat nie sal “sterf” nie omdat dit ’n lewendige letterkunde het, omdat Afrikaanse musiek steeds gedy en omdat Afrikaans steeds gepraat sal word. Sodanige argwaan oor Afrikaans strek Afrikaans ook nie ten goede nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> Sedert 1994 was daar nie net ’n geweldige aftakeling wat Afrikaans se hoër funksies betref nie. ’n Aspek van agteruitgang wat maklik misgekyk word, is die erosie van Afrikaans se grammatikale strukture in skriftelike kommunikasie by sommige taalgebruikers – veral wat die Afrikaanse sintaksis (sin) betref. Sommige dagblaaie laat hulle daardeur ken. Vergelyk maar die gebruik van bysinne – en veral betreklike bysinne – as selfstandige (outonome) sinne in hierdie verband. Stilistiese motiverings in sulke gevalle is meestal hoogs twyfelagtig. Dit kan onder andere daaraan toegeskryf word dat van die Afrikaansdepartemente by bepaalde universiteite kwyn, maar ook – en dit is miskien die belangrikste rede – dat van studente wat in professionele rigtings opgelei word waarin taal (hier Afrikaans) hulle basiese gebruiksinstrument is, nie meer taalkursusse as verpligte modules voorgeskryf het nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Daar kan voortgegaan word om nog faktore te noem wat Afrikaans negatief beïnvloed, maar daar word volstaan met ’n laaste opmerking in hierdie verband. Die ideologiese en politieke kragvelde waarbinne Afrikaans hom tans bevind, word dikwels geringgeskat – veral ook wat politieke gedienstigheid betref.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">En wat Afrikaneridentiteit as sodanig betref, moet in gedagte gehou word dat postmodernisme – tesame met ’n radikaal-veranderde Suid-Afrika – die inherente broosheid van die kunsmatige grense aan die lig gebring het, grense wat ’n hele aantal (veral ontologiese) identiteitsmetafore in stand gehou het, metafore wat stabiliteit verleen het aan ’n selfbeeld en ’n groepsbeeld, kulturele, religieuse en ruimtelike plasing, asook sosiale en interpersoonlike verhoudings. Postmodernisme het ook in ’n multikulturele, veranderende en globaliserende wêreld hierdie kontoere van identiteit laat vervaag. Op grond van die herstrukturering van ’n onderliggende metafoorsisteem het postmodernisme ’n kognitiewe heroriëntasie teweeggebring, sodanig dat ’n kontemporêre versugting in ooreenstemming met Bart Nel sou kon wees: Ek is Bart Nel van toe af, <i>maar ek is nie meer hy nie</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Verwysings</span></b></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Afrikaanse Taalraad</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">. 2016.03.27 geraadpleeg. (</span><span style="color: #2e74b5; font-size: 10pt;"><a href="http://afrikaansetaalraad.co.za/"><span style="color: #2e74b5;">http://afrikaansetaalraad.co.za/</span></a></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Black, Max. 1962. Metaphor. <i>Models and Metaphors. Studies in Language and Philosophy</i>. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, p. 2-47.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">De Tollenaere, F. & A.J. Persijn. 1982. <i>Van Dale</i> <i>handwoordenboek der Nederlandse taal</i>. Negende druk, geheel omgewerkt en aangevuld. Utrecht [etc.].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">De Vries, M. & L.A. te Winkel. 1882. <i>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal</i>. ’S-Gravenhage [etc.].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Geerts, G. & T. den Boon. 1999. <i>Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal</i>. Eerste deel A-I. Dertiende herziene uitgave. Utrecht [etc.]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Knuttel, J.A.N. & C.H.A. Kruyskamp, 1956, <i>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal</i>. Supplement: eerste deel. ’s-Gravenhage [etc.].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson. 1980. Conceptual metaphor in everyday language. <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i> 77(8): 453-486.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Lakoff, George. 2001.<i> 11 September 2001</i>. http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~verhagena/11-sept-01/Lakoff.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark. 1997. <i>Philosophy in the flesh</i>. </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Berkeley (elektroniese kopie).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Langacker</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">, Ronald W. 1993. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Reference-point constructions. <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i> 4(1): 1-38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Langacker, Ronald W. 1990. ‘Subjectification’. <i>Cognitive linguistics</i> 1(1): 5-38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Logos Library System. 1995. <i>Die Bybel</i>. </span><i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Nuwe Afrikaanse Vertaling</span></i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">, 1983 (elektroniese kopie). </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Bible Software 2.0. Washington: Logos Research Systems.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Louw, Chris. 2000. Boetman is die bliksem in. </span><i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Beeld</span></i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;"> (elektroniese kopie): 9 Mei 2000.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Mansvelt, N. 1880. ‘Het Afrikaansch’, in: G.S. Nienaber, <i>Vroeë opvattings oor Afrikaans as taal</i>. Johannesburg. 1984, p. 57-72.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Mbeki, </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Thabo</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. 1996. The Deputy President’s statement, on behalf of the ANC, at the adoption of South Africa’s 1996 Constitution Bill, 8 May 1996. <i>The African Renaissance</i>. Konrad Adenauer Stiftung Occasional Papers, May, 1998, 5-7.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Nienaber</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">, G.S. 1949. </span><i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Oor Afrikaans</span></i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Johannesburg:APB.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Nienaber, G.S. 1984. <i>Vroeë opvattings oor Afrikaans as taal</i>. Johannesburg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Oakley</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">, Todd V. 1998. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Conceptual blending, narrative discourse, and rhetoric. </span><i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive Linguistics</span></i><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;"> 9(4): 321-360.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ponelis, Fritz. 1998. <i>Standaardafrikaans en die Afrikaanse taalfamilie</i>. Annale, Universiteit van Stellenbosch: Goodwood.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van Dale<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">.</span> 1917. <i>Van Dale’s Handwoordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal</i>. Tweede herziene uitgave. ’S-Gravenhage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van der Merwe, H.J.J.M. 1968. <i>Patriot-Woordeboek</i>. Heruitgegee en van ’n voorwoord voorsien. Pretoria.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;"> der Merwe, H.J.J.M. 1972. Die ontstaan van Afrikaans. In: H.J.J.M. van der Merwe (red.), <i>Afrikaans - sy aard en ontwikkeling</i>. Pretoria, p. 15-66.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van Jaarsveld, F.A. 1980. Die ontstaan van Afrikanernasionalisme honderd jaar gelede. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">In: <i>Tydskrif vir geesteswetenskappe</i> 20(3): 220-231.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van Sterkenburg, P.G.J. & W.J.J. Pijnenburg. 1984. <i>Van Dale groot woordenboek van hedendaagse Nederlands</i>. Utrecht [etc.].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van Melle, J. 1960. <i>Bart Nel</i>. Pretoria: Van Schaik.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-26574486954675319572016-11-25T07:30:00.001+02:002016-11-26T14:51:11.798+02:00N.P. van Wyk Louw: krag, mag, moraliteit - en die daad<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #c00000; mso-ansi-language: AF; mso-fareast-language: AF;"><b style="color: black; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #c00000; mso-ansi-language: AF; mso-fareast-language: AF;">Ongepubliseerde N.P. van Wyk Louw-gedenklesing wat op<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #c00000; mso-ansi-language: AF; mso-fareast-language: AF;">Donderdag 10 September 2009<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #c00000; mso-ansi-language: AF; mso-fareast-language: AF;">in die Raadsaal van die Universiteit van Johannesburg gelewer is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>N.P. VAN WYK LOUW:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>KRAG, MAG, MORALITEIT – EN DIE DAAD<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Willem J. Botha (taalkundige: semantikus)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Inleidend</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die N.P. van Wyk Louw-lesingreeks het by drie vorige geleenthede taalkundiges – één ’n voormalige taalkundige – as sprekers gehad. Slegs in die lesing van prof. Francois Odendal (in 1987), getitel </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Kort taalkundige reis deur Van Wyk Louw</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, het dit werklik gegaan oor die táálkunde in Van Wyk Louw se taalgebruik. Odendal doen ’n ontleding, wat hy taal- en taalkundige opmerkings noem, van Van Wyk Louw se poësie. Hierin bestryk hy ’n hele grammatikale spektrum. Hy wys egter ook op Louw se leksikale kreatiwiteit, en binne hierdie konteks is daar myns insiens twee belangrike opmerkings wat Odendal oor Louw maak, naamlik:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">“(I)emand wat só met ’n taal kan omgaan, ’n taal só ken, móét daardie taal tot in sy fynste vesels kén.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">“Van Wyk Louw (kom) ... tot ‘óp die grense" van die taal”; hy “(toets) die grense as’t ware”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Met verwysing na die ongewone sintaktiese konstruksie as openingsreël in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">elegiese verse</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> X in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Tristia</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> voel Odendal egter dat Louw hom sintakties te buite gegaan het. Vergelyk (1):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-US">(1) </span><i>Bruin asters staan aan ’t verwelk word in 'n vaas </i><span lang="EN-GB">/ <i>wat blou is</i> ... (<i>Tristia</i>, bl. 90)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ek haal Odendal in hierdie verband aan: “Dat hier iets ongrammatikaals in sit, is vir my duidelik, en hoe om die reël te ‘red’ weet ek nie mooi nie.” In ’n artikel getitel </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Bruin asters staan aan ’t verwelk word</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">: </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">oorspanne sintaktiese spanning?</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> wat in 1988 verskyn, kom Odendal en ekself egter tot die versreël se redding deur binne bepaalde sintaktiese parameters aan te dui dat Louw sintaktiese reëls in die onderhawige geval tot breekpunt voer op grond van passiefindringing in ’n koppelwerkwoordkonstruksie – maar dat hy nie ongrammatikaal optree nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Odendal maak in sy lesing ook gewag van die feit dat in Louw se werk ’n verskeidenheid funksiewisselinge gestalte kry – hier ’n manifestasie van sy sintaktiese kreatiwiteit. Andermaal toon ons in 1989 in ’n artikel getitel </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Hierdie die</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> aan hoedat Louw byvoorbeeld die betekenisaspekte van die tradisionele bepaalde lidwoord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">die</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> ontgin in sy gebruik van die betrokke woord – onder andere as referensiële anafoor, as ’n predeterminant-element in uitgebreide naamwoordstukke, as ’n antesedent, as ’n deiktiese demonstratief en as ’n beklemtoonde lidwoord. Vergelyk die volgende voorbeelde ter illustrasie daarvan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-US">(2) (a) <i><u>Sy legioene</u>, </i>die<i> het self gepraat</i> (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:18)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> (b) <i>Vir </i><u>dié<i> van ons</i></u><i> wat oud sal word</i> … (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:47)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> (c) … <i>maar </i><u>dié</u><i> / wat skoonheid en hoogheid dra as las</i> … (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:12)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> (d) <i>Dis opstand </i><u>dié</u><i>. So ‘t ek dit nie verwag</i>. (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:20)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> (e) <i>ons vaar suid van </i><u>die</u><i> land, </i><u>dié</u><i> harde land, </i><u>dié</u><i> land wat ons getart het</i> … (<i>Dias</i>, 1963:22)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">In hierdie lesing sou ek kon voortgaan en uitbrei op dit wat Odendal gedoen het om Louw as taal-kundige (taal-koppelteken-kundige) te beskryf. Dit sou egter min sin hê. As semantikus wil ek my eerder bepaal by Van Wyk Louw as betekenis-kundige (let wel: nie semantikus nie). Ek wil eintlik aantoon hoedat Louw betekenis tot in die fynste nuanses ontgin in enkele van sy kreatiewe werke. Ek wil dit doen teen die agtergrond van twee van Louw se eie uitsprake oor sy werk, naamlik oor <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">waarheid</span> en <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">betekenis</span>. Albei hang natuurlik nou saam met die belewenis van betekenis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Oor </span><b>waarheid</b><span lang="EN-US"> sê Louw (1970:87): “(M)y enigste stryd, my lewe lank, was die vraag: ‘Wat is wáár? Wat kan ek wéét, wat kan ek glo? Waaraan kan ek vashou?’”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Die konsep <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">waarheid</span> is natuurlik self uiters kompleks en problematies. Lakoff en Johnson (1999) onderskei byvoorbeeld drie vlakke op grond waarvan konseptualisering ’n beliggaamde herkoms het, naamlik die neurale vlak, die fenomenologiese vlak van bewuste ervaring en die vlak van die kognitiewe onbewuste. Die kompleksiteit van die begrip <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">waarheid</span> blyk ondere andere daaruit dat dié vlakke, wat waarheidservaring betref, dikwels in ’n kontradiktoriese verhouding tot mekaar staan – soos ook blyk uit die Van Wyk Louw-werke onder bespreking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Wanneer dit om die soeke na waarheid gaan, gaan dit eintlik oor die tot-taal-bring van konsepte wat ons ervaring van waarheid behoort te onderlê. Binne die konteks van <i>Germanicus</i> </span>beweer Cloete (1963:93) byvoorbeeld ten opsigte van Louw se taalgebruik dat die woord – myns insiens eintlik die konsep – “self dramatiese figuur, handelingsmoment” word en dat die “karakters ... maklik agter hulle woorde (verdwyn)”. By implikasie verwys Cloete na wat ek Louw se <span lang="EN-US">‘waarheidskonsepte’ wil noem – want die woord <i>waarheid</i> is eintlik maar ’n sambreelterm wat ons gebruik om na ’n heg-verweefde konseptuele raamwerk te verwys wat ons opvattings oor waarheid konstitueer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Uiteraard sal ek nie al Louw se ‘waarheidskonsepte’ onder die loep kan neem nie. Daarom bepaal ek my by die konsepte<i> </i><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">krag</span>, <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">mag</span>, <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">moraliteit</span> en <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span> – veral omdat hulle betekenisse nie net meestal aaneenskakelend is nie, maar ook dikwels geïntegreerd in taal vergestalt word – en ook omdat hulle in ’n baie intieme semantiese relasie met – wat ons hier ‘waarheidskonsepte’ noem – staan. Binne hierdie lesing sal die fokus val op krag as onderbou van die konsep <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span> – en hoedat die daad die spil is vir die semantiese integrasie van mag en moraliteit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Oor </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">betekenis</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> sê Louw (1970:63/64) dat hy – weliswaar die digter binne hierdie konteks – “’n <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="OLE_LINK3"></a><span style="color: black;">sekere gegewe isoleer en dit dan in so ’n mate aan ’n volgehoue ontginningsproses onderwerp dat nuwe en onvermoede betekenisse</span> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">laag op laag daaruit opstaan</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">” (my beklemtoning). Hierdie uitspraak sluit ook direk aan by die raamwerk waaruit ek na Louw se werk kyk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Vir die doel van hierdie bespreking gaan ek dus nie in voëlvlug hier en daar iets oppik en semanties probeer ondervang nie, maar gaan ek my bepaal by die epiese gedig </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Raka</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en by enkele van Louw se dramas as </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">verwysingsmateriaal</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">. Dit sal dus in die eerste plek nie gaan om die meriete van die betrokke werke binne ’n besondere genre nie. Ten opsigte van die drama is dit eerder die wyse waarop die konsep <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">drama </span>betekenis konstitueer<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">, </span>wat onder die loep sal kom – en in die bespreking sal die klem veral val op die inhoud van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die semantiek dien as vertrekpunt van my beskouings. Ek verlaat my grotendeels op insigte vanuit ’n dissipline wat sedert die vroeë tagtigerjare as kognitiewe linguistiek bekend staan. Dit sal dus eers vir my nodig wees om enkele gedagtes vanuit hierdie raamwerk kortliks aan die orde te stel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Betekenisbenaderings</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die verskynsel dat ons almal tekste nie noodwendig eenders ‘verstaan’ nie, spruit onder andere uit die feit dat ons betekenisbenaderings by die lees van die betrokke teks mag verskil. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Taylor (2002) onderskei drie benaderings wat ek kortliks aanstip. Oor ’n vierde benadering (die </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">taalhandelingsbenadering</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">) sê ek later iets. Dit is ’n benadering wat by uitstek geskik is vir die beoordeling van betekenis binne die drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">’n </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Taal-wêreld-betekenisbenadering</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> veronderstel dat die leser deur ’n bepaalde taaluitdrukking – dit wat Lyons (1977:177) die “referring expression” noem – ’n betrokke referent binne ’n bepaalde tyd-ruimtelike (werklike of fiktiewe) situasie identifiseer. Sodanige identifikasie hang nou saam met die ooreenkoms wat die onderhawige referent het met die prototipe van die kategorie waartoe die referent behoort. Sodanige eensydige betekenisbenadering het byvoorbeeld in die verlede aanleiding gegee tot opvattings oor allerlei simboliese verwysings wat Raka kon hê, júís as gevolg van die feit dat Raka na ’n unieke referent verwys – dus nie aan ’n prototipe gemeet kan word nie (in teenstelling met die referente van die sogenaamde simboliese verwysings wat eienskappe van Raka met hom deel en hom dus nadertrek aan die kategorie waartoe húlle behoort). Vergelyk die volgende passasie ter illustrasie van die Raka-prototipelose kategorie:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(3) <i>want Raka ’t hy geweet was <u>’n vreemde ding</u>,</i>/ <i><u>meer as ’n dier</u>, maar <u>nog nie mens</u>,</i>/ <i>iets dodeliks en duisters, aan ’n troebel grens,</i>/ <i>vir denke of <b>daad</b> onseker</i>. (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:23)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">taalinterne betekenisbenadering</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> stel die leser in staat om op grond van die polisemie- en implikasie-betekenisbeginsels ooreenkomste in betekenis, verskille in betekenis en betekenisinsluitings te onderskei op grond waarvan die teks – en ook karakters binne die teks – kohesief en koherensief ’n betekenisstruktuur konstitueer. Vergelyk andermaal uit </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Raka</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> hoedat sinonimiese en antonimiese betekenisrelasies byvoorbeeld Raka profileer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ten opsigte van Raka se <u>fisieke eienskappe</u> word sy <u>voorkoms</u> onder andere sinonimies deur die adjektiewe </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">mooi</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">skoon</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> beskryf, sy <u>vermoëns</u> deur die adjektiewe </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">sterker</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">magtiger</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en sy <u>optrede</u> as </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">vinnig</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">snel</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">. Ten opsigte van sy <u>inherente aard</u> word hy sinonimies deur die adjektiewe </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">donker</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">duister</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">swart</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> beskryf wat <u>voorkoms</u> betref, dan </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">dom</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">bot</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">afwesig</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> wat <u>vermoëns</u> betref, en deur die adjektiewe </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">snaaks</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">vreedsaam</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">nie sleg</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> ten opsigte van sy <u>optrede</u> beskryf.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Antonimiese adjektiwiese relasies word gebruik om die dualiteit ín Raka na vore te bring; vergelyk </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">glad </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">x </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">swaar, vinnig </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">x</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> sat, snel </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">x</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> triestig</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> wat Raka se fisiese <u>optrede</u> betref, en ten opsigte van sy <u>inherente aard</u> en <u>houding</u> die volgende antoniempare: </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">vreedsaam </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">x</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> beestelik; nie sleg </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">x</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> dodelik</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">slu</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">)</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">; rusteloos </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">x</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> triestig</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">stil</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">konseptuele betekenisbenadering</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> beteken gewoon dat, soos Taylor (2002) dit stel, die betekenis van ’n uitdrukking gelykgestel word met die konseptualisering daarvan in die gedagtewêreld (Engels: “mind”) van die taalgebruiker. Dit impliseer dat vir die verstaan van ’n bepaalde konsep dit geanker word aan ’n betekenisbasis wat opgeroep word deur die taaluitdrukking wat vir die konsep gebruik word. Maar die betekenisbasis van die betrokke konsep is weer deel van omvattender ervaringsdomein wat Taylor (2002) beskryf as </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">“a more generalized ‘background’ knowledge configuration against which conceptualization is achieved.”</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Teen hierdie agtergrond keer ek vir ’n wyle terug na Raka. Louw (1970:28) sê self dat hy dikwels die volgende vrae oor Raka moes hoor: “Wat beteken Raka eintlik? Waarvoor staan Raka? Wat is die dieper betekenis van Raka?” Hierdie soort vrae het natuurlik ontstaan omdat daar geen betekenisbasis of ervaringsdomein bestaan het vir die verstaan van Raka nie, want Raka was “’n vreemde ding, / meer as ’n dier, maar nog nie mens”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Krag as ’n betekeniselement onder die oppervlakte van taal</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Louw se beskouing – soos vroeër vermeld – dat betekenisse deur ontginning laag op laag uit ’n sekere geïsoleerde gegewe kan opstaan – hou direk verband met die konseptuele betekenisbenadering, maar ook met die verhouding wat daar bestaan tussen wat Dirven en Verspoor (1999:18) die <b>begripwêreld</b> en die <b>taalwêreld</b> noem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Dit impliseer verder dat binne die begripwêreld sowel die prekonseptuele as konseptuele vlak (dus prelinguistieste vlak) betekenismatig verreken moet word, want dít word juis in taal gemanifesteer. Langacker (1993:1) beklemtoon dit as hy sê dat ons mees fundamentele kognitiewe vermoëns en ons ervaringsgebaseerde kognitiewe modelle direk en alomteenwoordig in taal gemanifesteer word; </span><span lang="EN-US">omgekeerd beskou, kan beweer word dat taalstruktuur belangrike leidrade bied met betrekking tot prekonseptuele ervarings soos kragdinamika, beeldskemas, gesubjektiveerde versus geobjektiveerde betekeniskonstruering, en verbandlegging tussen kognitiewe domeine of denkruimtes. Die konseptuele metafoor is onder andere ’n eksponent van laasgenoemde.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Lakoff en Johnson (1997) gaan selfs so ver om met betrekking tot menslike denkervaring ’n vlak te onderskei wat hulle die kognitiewe onbewuste noem, “the vast system of concepts and cognitive mechanisms that operates beneath the level of consciousness, structuring both our experience and our mode of conceptualizing the world”. Diagrammaties word dit in skyfie 5 na die bronverwysings weergegee.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Vervolgens wil ek my kortliks bepaal by die onderskeid wat Langacker tussen <b>geobjektiveerde</b> en <b>gesubjektiveerde betekeniskonstruering </b>tref én dit wat as <b>prekonseptuele ervaring</b> bekendstaan. Dit doen ek teen die agtergrond van die beskouing dat betekenis nie net deur ’n taalontvanger ervaar word nie, en dat taal nie net gebruik word om betekenis te dra nie, maar dat taal inderdaad gebruik word om betekenis te konstrueer en te struktureer – en as sodanig is die taalkunswerk (as holistiese betekenisnetwerk) die manifestasie van sodanige betekenisstrukturering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">3.1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b>Geobjektiveerde</b><span lang="EN-US"> en <b>gesubjektiveerde betekeniskonstruering</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Langacker (1990:7) gebruik die terme <b>geobjektiveerde</b> en <b>gesubjektiveerde konstruering</b> om aan te dui dat “an entity construed subjectively is implicit and hence non-salient … whereas the objectively-construed entity is salient by virtue of being placed <i>onstage</i> as the focus of attention.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Hy verduidelik die tegniese gebruik van die onderhawige terme deur die volgende verklarende perseptuele voorbeeld met betrekking tot iemand wat bril dra: “Indien ek my bril afhaal, dit voor my hou om te ondersoek, dan is my konstruering daarvan <i>maksimaal objektief</i>, …, die bril funksioneer eksklusief en prominent as die <i>objek van persepsie</i>, en hoegenaamd nie meer as ’n gedeelte van my perseptuele apparatuur nie. Daarenteen is die konstruering van die bril maksimaal subjektief indien ek dit dra en gebruik om ’n ander objek te ondersoek. In sodanige geval vervaag die bril vanuit my bewustelik waarneming ten spyte van die bepalende rol wat dit speel ten opsigte van my perseptuele ervaring.” Dit is egter belangrik om te benadruk dat geobjektiveerde en gesubjektiveerde betekeniskonstruering ’n <b>kontinuumverskynsel</b> is – ook, en veral, wat die kreatiewe skryfproses betref – gesien in die lig van die betekenislae waaroor Louw dit het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">3.2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b>Prekonseptuele betekeniservaring<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Binne hierdie betoog word – wat prekonseptuele ervaring betref – slegs aandag geskenk aan <b>krag</b> as ’n <b>beeldskematiese ervaring</b>. Oor beeldskemas moet ons net vermeld dat dit ontstaan uit prekonseptuele beliggaamde sensoriese en perseptuele ervarings van die mens se interaksie <b>mét</b> en sy fisiese beweging <b>ín</b> die reële wêreld (vergelyk Evans & Green, 2006:178).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Talmy (1985:294) beskryf beeldskematiese <b>kragervaring</b> as ’n semantiese kategorie wat hy <b>kragdinamika</b> noem – volgens hom ’n fundamentele begripskategorie op grond waarvan betekenis gestruktureer en georganiseer word. Johnson (1987:44) benadruk die feit dat ons daaglikse bestaan gekenmerk word deur die <b>ervaring</b><span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> </span>van kragte wat ons uitoefen, kragte wat op ons uitgeoefen word, en kragte wat in ons omgewing op mekaar inwerk. Volgens hom baan sodanige kragte as tipiese patroonmatige ervarings hulle weg tot in ons betekenissisteem, ons taaluitdrukkingstruktuur en in ons talige kommunikasie as sodanig – dus in ooreenstemming met Talmy se beskouing. As sodanig tree kragte dus as beeldskemas op.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Alhoewel kragstrukture prelinguisties bestaan, dien hulle nie slegs as agtergrond waaruit betekenis ontwikkel nie; hulle vorm self deel van betekenis en begrip – hulle is op sigself betekenisstrukture. Hulle kry linguisties beslag op grond van die feit dat hulle in taal gegrammatikaliseer, geleksikaliseer en in diskoers gemanifesteer word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In die geval van <i>Raka</i>, waar twee duidelike kragte teenoor mekaar gestel word, word die prekonseptuele ervaring van krag <u>geobjektiveerd</u> gekonstrueer in die eksplisiete vermelding daarvan in nie minder nie as tien gevalle. Ek haal slegs vier voorbeelde aan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(4) <i>Die manne het daarna sy <b>krag</b> bemerk</i> / <i>aan die tekens van die groot bosse</i> (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:7)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(5) <i>Die jagters wis</i> / <i>wat <b>krag</b> was en hulle het gevrees</i>. (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:8)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(6) <i>Maar toe die stemme in die smoor nog hyg</i>, / <i>toe Koki weer</i>: “<i>En ek sal gaan</i>,” / <i>want in die skreeu het hy stil verstaan</i> / <i>dat dit sy <b>krag</b> was</i>, <i>nie sy woorde</i>, <i>wat hulle prys</i>; (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:17)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> (7)<i> ’t hulle hom gekry</i> / <i>in die verskeurde papkuil en die poel waar hy</i> / <i>half in die modder getrap, op die skag</i> / <i>van sy stukkende spies gelê ’t, en die <b>krag</b></i> / <i>en die woede van die swart dier kon hulle sien</i> / <i>aan die liggaam en die spore en die pap riet</i> / <i>en die skild wat geskeur was en diep ingetrap</i> / <i>in die koue klei ...</i> (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:28)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Dat kragdinamika as semantiese kategorie binne die betrokke konteks egter ook deurgaans <u>gesubjektiveerd</u> prelinguisties bydra tot betekeniskonstruering, word onder andere deur die volgende versreëls geïllustreer:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> (8) <i>O skoonheid van die lyf</i>, <i>jy slaat</i> / <i>óp uit die aarde soos die rooi vonk</i> / <i>uit die vuursteen spring</i>; <i>wild en jonk</i> / <i>is nog die skoonheid van die lyf op die swaar aarde</i> / <i>waaruit hy rank</i>, <i>hy ken sy waarde</i> / <i>nog half maar en die ver blom nog nie</i> / <i>waarheen hy groei en reik</i>; <i>maar dié</i> / <i>wat skoonheid en hoogheid dra as las</i> / <i>en ver verlange</i>, <i>is ’n vreemde ras</i> / <i>van mense en bloot aan veel gevaar</i> (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:12).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In die betrokke versreëls word verskeie taalmetafore gebruik om die liggaamskoonheid uit te beeld, feitlik almal hoofsaaklik onderlê deur kragdinamika; vergelyk <i>skoonheid wat <b>opslaan uit</b></i> <i>die aarde</i> (’n voorbeeld van kragbemagtiging), <i>die rooi vonk wat <b>uit</b> die vuursteen <b>spring</b></i> (andermaal ’n voorbeeld van kragbemagtiging), <i>die <b>swaar</b> aarde</i> (’n voorbeeld van teenkrag), <b><i>rank</i></b><i> <b>uit</b> die aarde</i> (weer eens ’n voorbeeld van kragbemagtiging), <i>hy <b>groei</b> en <b>reik</b> na die ver blom</i> (’n voorbeeld van kragvoorstuwing / kragkompulsie) en <i>skoonheid en hoogheid is <b>’n las</b></i> (’n voorbeeld van teenkrag).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Die hoorspel <i>Dias</i> dien by uitstek as illustrasie van sodanige <u>gesubjektiveerde</u> <u>betekeniskonstruering</u> wanneer kragdinamika as semantiese kategorie<span style="color: #943634;"> </span>in die <b>wortelbetekenisse</b> van <b>modale hulpwerkwoorde </b>beslag kry. In 1989 publiseer ek en kollegas Jac Conradie en wyle Rika Preller ’n artikel, getitel <i>Modale hulpwerkwoorde in Dias</i>. Daarin toon ons onder andere aan dat daar nie minder nie as honderd-en-dertig modale hulpwerkwoorde net in die Dias-gespreksbeurte voorkom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ek gaan nie ons ontleding van die kragvergestalting deur die betrokke werkwoorde hier herhaal nie. Ek haal egter ’n formulering oor die tema in <i>Dias</i> aan – as ek reg onthou, nog Rika Preller se formulering – wat duidelik die kragte werksaam ín die persoon van Dias suggereer:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i>Die tema in </i><span lang="EN-US">Dias<i> is die strewe na buitengewone selfverwesenliking van ’n individu wat sy naam wil verewig in sy ‘poging om die aarde en die eeue oop te sluit’, ’n tydruimtelike ekspansie, slegs ten dele in die naam van God. Hieraan verknoop is die hubris van die hoofkarakter: trots, hoogmoed, oormoed, met die daarmee gepaardgaande blindheid, irrasionaliteit, selfoorskatting, ooreising van lojaliteite, ongeduld met swakhede</i> …<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">En dan die volgende baie tersaaklike formulering vir die konteks van hierdie lesing:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i>Droom, drif en <u>daad</u> is saamgetrek in een persoon wat moet groei tot die besef dat die skeidslyn tussen ‘drang’ en ‘dwaasheid’ yl is.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ek volstaan met die voorgaande enkele opmerkings oor kragverstalting deur modale hulpwerkwoorde in <i>Dias</i>. Ek wil egter nog Dias se slotgebed aanhaal en aandui dat kragskemas ook andersins op ’n <u>gesubjektiveerde vlak</u> geleksikaliseer en gegrammatikaliseer word – ook as onderbou van konseptuele metaforiese taaluitdrukkings, soos byvoorbeeld <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">God is ’n krag</span>; vergelyk (9), waarin krulhakies kragbematiging, ronde hakies teenkrag, blokhakies kragblokkasie en onderstreping kragvoortstuwing as onderliggende betekenismomente veronderstel:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="NL">(9) … <i>Nou </i><b><span style="color: #3366ff;">{</span></b><span style="color: #3366ff;">kan ek bid<b>}</b></span><i>. God,</i><b><span style="color: #3366ff;">{</span></b><span style="color: #3366ff;">hou<b>}</b></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">in hierdie laaste oomblik my gebed</span><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></i></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #3366ff;">{</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #3366ff;">gesuiwer<b>}</b></span><i> soos dit nooit was in my dae</i><span lang="EN-US">:<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">vergeef my </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">(</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: #339933; mso-ansi-language: NL;">sondes<b>)</b></span><i><span lang="NL">, want aan my<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">was áls </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">(</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">o</span><span lang="NL" style="color: #339933; mso-ansi-language: NL;">nwaar<b>)</b></span><i><span lang="NL">, </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">(</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">onheilig<b>)</b></span><i><span lang="NL"> en </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">(</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">besmet<b>)</b></span><span lang="NL">:<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">tót ook my bid, tót ook my noem, o Heer,<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">van U en van U heilige Naam – </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">(</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">onrein<b>)</b></span><span lang="NL">;<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">{</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">leer<b>}</b></span><i> U </i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #3366ff;">{</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">my<b>}</b></span><i> bid; bid, bid U self in my,</i><i><span lang="EN-US"></span></i><i><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">en </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">{</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">laat my<b>}</b></span><i><span lang="NL"> dank dat u my </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">[</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">vasgekeer<b>]</b></span><i><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">het en </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">[</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">gevang<b>]</b></span><i><span lang="NL">, dat U my hart sy sin<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">[</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">geweier<b>]</b></span><i><span lang="NL"> het tot op sy sterwensuur</span></i><span lang="NL">;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">dat U tot op die laaste </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">[</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">onvervul<b>]</b></span><i><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">en </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">[</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">onvoltooi gelaat<b>]</b></span><i><span lang="NL"> het, God, die hart<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">wat ek </span></i><u><span lang="NL" style="color: magenta; mso-ansi-language: NL;">wou vul</span></u><i><span lang="NL">; dat ek my aan geen werk<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">[</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">ooit kon versadig<b>]</b></span><i><span lang="NL">; </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">{</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">dat ek barre kuste<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">en leë hande alleen kon kry<b>}</b></span><i><span lang="NL">.</span></i><span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="NL"> En wees<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">by dié land, by </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">{</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">daardie eensaam land<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="color: #3366ff; mso-ansi-language: NL;">wat ek gevind het<b>}</b></span><i><span lang="NL"> … </span></i><b><span lang="NL" style="color: green; mso-ansi-language: NL;">(</span></b><span lang="NL" style="color: #339933; mso-ansi-language: NL;">nie wou vind nie<b>)</b></span><i><span lang="NL"> -<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL"> net<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">om my smart; en </span></i><u><span lang="NL" style="color: magenta; mso-ansi-language: NL;">wees by</span></u><i><u><span lang="NL"> </span></u></i><u><span lang="NL" style="color: magenta; mso-ansi-language: NL;">alle eensaam<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<u><span lang="NL" style="color: magenta; mso-ansi-language: NL;">dinge</span></u><i><span lang="NL">, en dié wat eensaam </span></i><span lang="NL" style="color: purple; mso-ansi-language: NL;">[sterwe]</span><i><span lang="NL"> hier<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">rondom my; en </span></i><u><span lang="NL" style="color: magenta; mso-ansi-language: NL;">wees</span></u><i><span lang="NL">, my God,<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="NL">tot in die laaste skrik nog hier </span></i><u><span lang="NL" style="color: magenta; mso-ansi-language: NL;">by my</span></u><span lang="NL">. (<i>Dias</i>, 1963:49)</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b> Sleutel</b><span lang="EN-US">: krulhakies <span style="color: #3366ff;">{ … }</span> = <span style="color: #3366ff; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">kragbematiging<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> blokhakies <span style="color: purple;">[ … ] = <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">kragblokkasie</span></span><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">ronde hakies <span style="color: #339966;">( … )</span> = <span style="color: green; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">teenkrag <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> onderstreping <u><span style="color: magenta;">…</span></u> = <span style="color: magenta; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">kragvoortstuwing<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Teen die agtergrond van wat ek alles oor kragdinamika gesê het, moet ek egter die volgende opmerking maak:<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">Louw het die tersaaklike inhoude sekerlik nie doelbewus linguisties só beplan nie. Máár ons moet rekening daarmee hou dat kragdinamika een van die digter en dramaturg se betekeniskonstrueringswerktuie is – én dat hy binne die kontinuum van geobjektiveerde en gesubjektiveerde betekeniskonstruering somtyds meer bewus en ander kere minder bewus van die betrokke semantiese kategorie sou wees – soos ook later in die geval van die drama <i>Germanicus</i> sal blyk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">3.3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b>Modale hulpwerkwoorde en taalhandelinge<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ek keer vir ’n oomblik terug na modale hulpwerkwoorde. Modale hulpwerkwoorde se betekenisse is heg verweef met die illokusionêre krag van die taaluitinge waarin hulle voorkom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Laat my eers iets oor taalhandelinge sê – die vierde soort <i>betekenisbenadering</i> waaroor ek vroeër gepraat het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Elke taaluiting is ’n handeling. Daarom word elke taaluiting deur ’n taalhandelingskrag onderlê. In wese hou taalhandelinge verband met ’n spreker se intensie en bedoeling met die uiting. Sodanige bedoelings (tegnies ’n illokusie genoem) hou verband met kraggestalts (dus: kragdinamika), gemanifesteer in stellingshandelinge, ekspressiewe handelinge, evalueringshandelinge, direktiewe handelinge, gesagshandelinge en verbintenishandelinge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ter illustrasie van die taalvergestalting van krag deur taalhandelinge hou ek ’n voorbeeld uit <i>Germanicus</i> voor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ten tye van ’n veldslag in Noord-Frankryk naby die huidige Nederlande word Germanicus deur sy soldate onder druk geplaas om na die suide (Rome) uit te trek en in ’n verraadsaanval Tiberius te verslaan. Sonder om in besonderhede uit te wy, kan genoem word dat dit dus hier gaan om teenkragte wat verbaal in die dialoog vergestalt word. In ’n poging om tyd te wen, rig Germanicus hom tot die soldate met die volgende twee woorde:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> (10) “<i>Eers noord!</i>” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:15)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Binne die bepaalde konteks vergestalt die bepaalde uiting nie net op ’n subtiele wyse twee taalhandelingskragte nie (naamlik ’n direktief en ’n verbintenishandeling), maar word daar ook uitdrukking gegee aan twee kragskemas, naamlik kragvoortstuwing (deur die bevel/opdrag) en kragherleiding (deur die implisiete belofte). Vergelyk Botha (1991) vir ’n vollediger bespreking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Dit is interessant om daarop te let dat hierdie kragte (en dan natuurlik ook die vergestalting van <b>mag</b> deur die bevel) net ‘gedra’ word deur twee bywoorde – dus ’n sin wat gereduseer is tot twee bywoorde, ontdaan van ’n onderwerp en die res van die gesegde.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ten opsigte van taalhandelinge bied die drama – wat wesenlik handeling, en in besonder taalhandeling deur dialoog veronderstel – dus die ideale konteks vir die taalvergestalting van kragdinamika, maar is dit ook gepredisponeer vir die uitbeelding van mag.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Laat ons vir die doel van hierdie betoog ’n redelik vereenvoudigde onderskeid tref tussen die krag van taal en die mag van taal (vergelyk Botha, 2007). Taalkragte verwys na dit waaroor ons dit tot op hede gehad het – die skematiese konseptuele modelle wat onder die bewussynsvlak taal struktureer – in ooreenstemming met Lakoff and Johnson (1997) se beskouing, dit wil sê die modelle wat ons gebruik om ons ervaring te konseptualiseer en daaroor te dink en te praat deur onder andere konseptuele metafore te gebruik. Die mag van taal verwys grootliks na die <i>beheer</i>, <i>invloed</i> en <i>gesag</i> wat mense het op grond van die gebruik van die kragdinamika van taal – in verhouding tot hulle relatiewe status. En sodanige status mag geïnstitusionaliseer wees, mag toegeëien wees, óf mag ’n gewaande status wees.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Alhoewel daar ’n onderskeid te tref is tussen die krag en die mag van taal, moet egter besef word dat hulle in baie gevalle interaktief funksioneer en nie maklik van mekaar te skei is nie – én dat mag meestal kontekstueel ‘gedra’ word deur verskillende nuanses van die daad, wat dan natuurlik ook die taaldaad veronderstel. Vervolgens word die aard van die daad onder die loep geneem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Die daad as manifestasie van krag, mag en moraliteit</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die sou nie veel betekenis gehad het om net te verwys het na Louw se geobjektiveerde en gesubjektiveerde gebruik van kragdinamika as semantiese kategorie nie. Ander skrywers het dit ook gedoen en doen dit nog steeds. Die betekenis daarvan – in die geval van Louw – is egter ingebed in wat ek vroeër sy ‘waarheidskonsepte’ genoem het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Met die voorgaande gedagtes oor krag dus as agtergrond, wil ek my vervolgens by die daad bepaal – en, soos reeds gesê, die daad as spil vir die semantiese integrasie van mag en moraliteit. Louw het dit natuurlik ook oor ander sogenaamde ‘waarheidskonsepte’ wat intiem met die daad verweef is, waarna net vlugtig sal verwys kan word sonder enige bespreking, onder andere <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">mens</span> en <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">menslikheid</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Laat ek eers drie oorvereenvoudige stellings maak – en vertrou dat dit in die volgende bespreking genuanseer sal word:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Sonder krag is daar nie mag nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Sonder krag en mag is daar nie ’n daad nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Sonder die daad – en dit sluit die taaldaad in – is daar nie sprake van moraliteit nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Eers moet ek iets oor die semantiek van die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> sê.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">4.1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Semantiek van die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><i>daad</i></span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Omdat die substantief </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> in ’n afgeleide verhouding tot die werkwoord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">doen</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> staan, spreek dit vanself dat </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> se verhouding tot </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">doen</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> as vertrekpunt behoort te dien. Die feit dat </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">doen</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> ’n hele semantiese spektrum bestryk, impliseer dan dat </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, as afgeleide substantief, ’n ooreenstemmende semantiese aard openbaar – dat </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> in feite </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">alle fisiese</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">psigiese</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en ander moontlike dade (dus ook </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">taaldade</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">) binne sy betekenisbestek kan akkommodeer. Sodanige omvattende, vae betekenisonderskeiding van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> word bepaal deur die semantiese vlak waarop die woord veralgemenend verwys.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Op ’n ander vlak het die substantief <i>daad</i>, op grond van ’n afgeslote handeling in bepaalde vaste uitdrukkings ’n betekenisinperking ondergaan. In hierdie opsig beskryf <i>Van Dale Groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal</i> die betekenis daarvan as ‘een met bewustheid gepleegde afgesloten handeling’, en noem onder andere voorbeelde soos die volgende (hier as die Afrikaans-ekwivalente weergegee): ‘geen woorde maar dade’; ‘die daad by die woord voeg’; ‘iemand met raad en daad bystaan’; ‘dade moet spreek, getuig’. Hierdie uitdrukkings reflekteer in die eerste plek die sterk onderskeid wat tussen die betekenisinhoude van <i>daad</i> en <i>woord</i> getref kan word – dat woordgebruik waarskynlik nie as dade geld nie en <i>dat dade na een of ander fisiese handeling verwys</i>. Die gebruik van hierdie betekenisonderskeiding impliseer <i>’n fisiese daad sonder enige verwysing na die spesifieke aard</i> daarvan. Op grond van die skerp onderskeid wat tussen woorde en dade getref word, sal hierdie vlak waarskynlik die prototipe van die bepaalde kategorie waartoe dade gereken word, verteenwoordig. Dade word dan tipies beoordeel ‘on the basis of their perceived resemblance to the prototype’, aldus die beskrywing wat Langacker (1987:371) aan die begrip ‘prototipe’ heg. As subordinaat van hierdie soort daad geld </span>spesifieke soorte fisiese handeling, wat met geweld gepaard gaan en ’n slagoffer as resultaat het – histories, kultureel of kontekstueel gedetermineer.<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Om meer spesifieke betekenisonderskeidings van die woord <i>daad</i> te onderskei (en ook die metaforiese betekenisuitbreidings daarvan), is dit nodig om die onderhawige woord se betekenisonderskeidings kontekstueel te verifieer. Dit doen ek teen die agtergrond van die inhoud van <i>Germanicus</i>. Die keuse van hierdie konteks maak dit in hierdie opsig geskik op grond van die feit dat verskillende karakters (binne die drama) se besinning oor die aard van die daad dit ’n wesenlike geobjektiveerde ervaring binne die betrokke dramakonteks maak; byvoorbeeld:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(11) (<i>H</i>)<i>oe nederig is die <b>daad</b>, hoe groots die dood</i> (karakter: Lucius; <i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:26)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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(12) <i>Het ek nie <b>daad</b>, oorwinning, eer, mag</i> / <i>soos drank voel opstoot deur my sinne nie</i> / <i>en droë-keel geword van die begeerte</i> / <i>meer as een dag!</i> (karakter: Germanicus; <i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:33)<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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(13) Waarom <i>spring ons van dag tot dag van <b>daad</b></i><i><span lang="NL"> / </span></i><i>na <b>daad</b>?</i> (karakter: Germanicus; <i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:41).<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Die geobjektiveerde daad, soos na verwys deur verskillende karakters binne verskillende omstandighede in die voorgaande voorbeelde, funksioneer in <i>Germanicus</i> op ’n metaforiese vlak in verhouding tot die prototipiese betekenis van die betrokke woord.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Die onderhawige historiese drama vergestalt <span lang="NL">’n tyd (dus: konteks) van opstand, geweld, veldslae en selfs moord – ’n tyd waarin die fisiese daad ’n belangrike beslegtingsmeganisme was. En wanneer Piso aan Germanicus sê<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL"> </span>(14) <i>Ruk jou weer los. Kom tot die <b>daad</b>, die <b>daad</b>.</i> / <b><i>Dít</i></b> (= <i>die daad</i> – WJB) <i>is ons ras se krag</i>. (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:98)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">en dié besondere daad </span>rig op ’n bepaalde persoon, uitgespel in sy eis<o:p></o:p></div>
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(15) <i>Dat jy Tiberius slaan en hom vernietig</i> – (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:100),<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">word die daad vereenduidig op grond van die persoon van ’n slagoffer. Alhoewel daar die suggestie bestaan dat die werkwoorde <i>slaan</i> en <i>vernietig</i> – dit wil sê <i>die daad</i>, soos gebruik in (14) – in (15) dui op die dood van Tiberius, is die vereenduidiging geleë in die feit dat op ’n metaforiese vlak sowel die werkwoorde <i>slaan</i> as <i>vernietig</i> by implikasie gekarteer word op die werkwoord <i>dood</i>, sonder eksplisiete vermelding van laasgenoemde. Daar sou wel na sodanige handelinge(e) as ’n geweld<b><i>daad</i></b> verwys kon word. Die verwagting sou tog seker in elk geval nie wees dat Germanicus, as veldheer, self die doods<b><i>daad</i></b><i> </i>moes pleeg nie, maar dat hy net die instrument daarvan sou wees. In sodanige gevalle tree <i>daad</i> op ’n betekenisvlak op op grond waarvan ons van die metaforiese ekstensie van die betrokke substantief kan praat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #006600;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">En wanneer Germanicus die taal<b><i>daad</i></b> pleeg teenoor Tiberius in die woorde<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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(16) <i>Ek neem dit aan</i>. / <i>Ek vat dit soos ek ook die dood aanvaar</i> / <i>en al wat menslik</i> is (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:84),<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">in die wete dat hierdie opdrag van Tiberius aan hom sy (Germanicus se) dood beteken, tree <i>daad</i> op ’n nog abstrakter onderliggende vlak op. Nou gaan dit nie meer (geobjektiveerd) óór die daad nie, maar nou word Germanicus se wóórde (gesubjektiveerd) sélf die daad.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #006600;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Die voorgaande kursoriese oorsig van die verskillende betekenisonderskeidings van die woord <i>daad</i> in ’n bepaalde konteks – waarvan die besonderhede uitgespel word in Botha (2006) – bevestig ’n komplekse betekenisnetwerk, gekonstitueer deur die prototipiese betekenis van <i>daad</i> (synde ’n <u>ongespesifiseerde <b>fisiese</b></u> daad – <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>1</sup></b>), semanties ingeperk tot <u>spesifieke soorte <b>fisiese</b> handelinge</u> <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>2</sup></b>,<b> </b>veralgemeen tot <u>ongespesifiseerde dade</u> – <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>3</sup></b>, uiteindelik ekstensioneel verryk om ook <u>dade op metaforiese vlak</u> te vergestalt – <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>4</sup></b>. Maar uiteindelik lê die daad ook opgesluit in die illokusionêre krag van die taalhandeling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">4.2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> <b> </b></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Daad</b></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b> is ’n oordeelsnaamwoord</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Nie alle doene word dade nie!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> By implikasie is die daad die beoordeling van die ‘resultaat’ van ’n bepaalde handeling. Die betekenisonderskeiding “resultaat” is daarom meestal by die betekenis van <i>daad</i> ingebed. Wanneer Dias byvoorbeeld vra<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(17) <i>(L)aat ons noordwaarts vaar, drie dae</i>, / <i>en kyk of daar ’n teken kom</i>, <i>’n wonder</i>, / <i>’n teken dat ons welbehaaglik doen</i> / <i>in hierdie vaart</i> (<i>Dias</i>, 1963:34),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">kan sodanige taalhandeling tereg beskou word as ’n wens of ’n versoek, maar binne die konteks van die hoorspel, waar Dias ook konstateer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(18) <i>Ek is klaar verby die dowwe punt</i> / <i>waar my dwars wil geëindig het</i> (<i>Dias</i>, 1963:35),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">kan sy taalhandeling nie anders as ’n <i>wanhoops<b>daad</b></i> beoordeel word nie. Dit berus dus by die oordeel van die spreker of hy/sy dit inderdaad as ’n daad – en as sodanige daad – sou wou benoem, soos byvoorbeeld ook by die seleksie van afgeleide naamwoorde soos <i>wandaad</i>, <i>weldaad</i>, <i>misdaad</i>, ensovoorts om bepaalde afgeslote handelinge te beskryf. Ons sou in sodanige gevalle van ‘oordeelsnaamwoorde’ kon praat, in ooreenstemming met die term ‘oordeelsadjunk’ wat Ponelis (1978:309) gebruik om onder andere adjektiewe te beskryf waarvan die seleksie bepaal word deur die oordeel van die spreker, byvoorbeeld <i>Die transaksie het <b>gelukkig</b> deur die mat geval</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Daarom kan ons ook praat van <i>aaklige</i>, <i>barbaarse</i>, <i>desperate</i>, <i>gemene</i>, <i>goeie</i>, <i>groothartige</i>, <i>grusame</i>, <i>gruwelike</i>, <i>laakbare</i>, <i>lae</i>, <i>la fhartige</i>, <i>onbaatsugtige</i>, <i>onbesonne</i>, <i>ondeurdagte</i>, <i>onhoudbare</i>, <i>onmenslike</i>, <i>onsedelike</i>, <i>politieke</i>, <i>selfbevestigende</i>, <i>sinnelose</i>, <i>skaamtelose</i>, <i>skandelike</i>, <i>skokkende</i>, <i>spontane</i>, <i>verskriklike</i>, <i>waansinnige</i>, <i>walglike</i> <b><i>dade</i></b> – en ook van <i>’n <b>daad</b></i> <i>van</i> <i>aggressie</i>, … <i>van boewery</i>, … <i>van deernis</i>, … <i>van duister vernuf</i>, … <i>van geweld</i>, … <i>van medelye</i>, … <i>van menslikheid</i>, … <i>van moord</i>, … <i>van opregte liefde</i>, … <i>van politieke korrektheid</i>, … <i>van sadisme</i>, … <i>van skending van menseregte</i>, … <i>van versoening</i> / … ensovoorts, ensovoorts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> Benoeming van ’n afgeslote handeling deur die woord <i>daad</i> – dus as ’n oordeelsnaamwoord – berus dus by die kontekstuele oordeel van die spreker – en meermale op grond van morele kriteria; dus ’n morele oordeel!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">4.3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Moraliteit en die daad</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Van Wyk Louw laat die morele dimensie van die daad op verskillende vlakke figureer – onder andere deur die fisiese dade van sy karakters, deur geobjektiveerde besinning oor die daad deur sy karakters – en deur die taalhandelinge van sy karakters – maar lewer self nie direk kommentaar daarop in sy kreatiewe werk nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> Die relatiewe verhouding tussen die konsep <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">moraliteit</span> en morele oordeel – ook as subordinaat van moraliteit – word ook meermale deur Louw ontgin. Koki se <i>dwaas <b>daad</b></i> is sprekend van ’n morele oordeel vanuit ’n bepaalde beheersende punt (Engels: “vantage point”); vergelyk die volgende versreëls:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(19) <i>Húlle ’t hom skamerig gevolg oor die warm en droë</i> / <i>stof van die kraal en nágestaar</i> … / … <i>en oral was die luide gepraat</i> / <i>van Koki en Raka en die <b>dwaas</b> <b>daad</b></i>, / <i>en die geeste se toorn</i>. (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:24)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ook die volgende versreëls getuig van morele oordeel:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(20) <i>By die vure was woorde</i>, <i>oud en wys</i>, / <i>van</i> “<i>Raka is vreedsaam</i>”, “<i>Raka is nie sleg</i>”, (<i>Raka</i>, 1962:18)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Vergelyk ook hoedat in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die held</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">misdaad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> en </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">heldedaad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> nie net teenoor mekaar gestel word nie, maar ook moreel beoordeel word in die woorde van dr. Ménard wanneer hy suggereer dat Louis Girod – die misdadiger – se doen (dit wil sê sy </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">) ’n </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">heldedaad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> kan wees:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-US">(21) <i>My seun, my seun. Jy <b>doen</b> ’n verskriklike ding. <b>Maar dit is mooi</b>. </i>Vive la France<i>. Jy is ook my Frankryk</i> (<i>Die held</i>, 1970:35).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Terloops, dit is nie net die daad as sodanig wat moreel beoordeel word nie. So byvoorbeeld word ook die konsepte <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">mens</span> en <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">menslikheid</span> binne verskillende konstekste aan morele oordeel onderwerp – heg verweef met dade waaraan hulle onderwerp is of word. Wanneer Dias byvoorbeeld sê “Die waarheid wurg my”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Dias</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1963:30)</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, doen hy dit op grond van ’n </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">ontnugtering wat hy ervaar wanneer hy besef sy “werk is deur die lot verstrik met mense”; dat wat hy wou bereik, onbereikbaar bly omdat wat “menslik” is, gedefinieer kan word as “verwardheid, vrees, nyd, dwarsheid van denk, selfsug, aparte paaie …” (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Dias</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1963:31).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Binne die </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">-konteks word die morele dimensie van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">sodanige </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">waarheidservaring sterker aangeraak deur definiërende eienskappe van “menslikheid” en “onmenslikheid”, dít wat volgens menslike oordeel direk verband hou met die goed en kwaad, die reg en verkeerd van die menslike natuur. In hierdie drama word die intrinsieke spanning tussen die elemente van moraliteit en immoraliteit tot breekpunt gevoer wanneer dit wat reg is nie noodwendig goed is nie, en wat goed is nie noodwendig reg is nie. Dit kulmineer in verskillende opvattings van mens-wees teen die agtergrond van diens aan en instandhouding van die Romeinse Ryk – in Piso se woorde uitgedruk as: “... ‘liefde’, ‘vriendskap’, ‘</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">menslikheid’, dít is jul woorde – nooit meer ‘eer’ en ‘plig’ ...” (</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:41).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> En Tiberius probeer sy eie dade van “wreedheid en geweld” teenoor die mens moreel verantwoord wanneer hy Germanicus konfronteer met die opvatting dat die mens “dom en wild” is, omdat ín die mens “sy wreedheid” en “sy wellus” een is, omdat ín die mens “pyn en wellus” een is – omdat daar parings (verwysend na menslike eienskappe) is wat “gruwelik en verrukliker” is as wat Germanicus ken (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:83).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Germanicus en die daad</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Aan die begin van die lesing het ek genoem dat ek my wil toespits op Van Wyk Louw as betekenis-kundige, teen die agtergrond van wat hy self oor betekenis te sê gehad het. Ek het ook aangedui hoedat verskillende betekenislae deur die kunswerk gekonstitueer kan word. Ek het ook genoem dat ek my veral wil toespits op die inhoud van die drama <i>Germanicus</i> – juis omdat krag, mag en moraliteit so verstrengel word in die dade van verskillende karakters in die drama, maar bowenal omdat die betrokke drama vir my by uitstek Louw se ontginning van betekenis – en in besonder die betekenis van die woord <i>daad</i> – in en deur taal verteenwoordig<a href="file:///C:/Users/Willie/Dropbox/Word-dokumentasie/O%20Navorsing/Krag,%20mag,%20moraliteit%20%20-%20en%20die%20daad%20Lesing%202016%2003%2029.rtf#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">[1]</span></span></span></a>. Ek wil dit ook doen teen die agtergrond van toentertyd se literêre uitsprake oor die karakter van Germanicus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Pas na die verskyning van die versdrama </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> (in 1956) – en ook daarna – is hoog opgegee oor Germanicus se beweerde daadloosheid. Grové (1965:74) praat van sy “gebrek aan optrede”. Van Heerden (1967:31) beweer dat die “lang monoloë” ... “die handeling laat ‘stol’” as gevolg van die hoofkarakter se “basiese passiwiteit”. Cloete (1980:4) verwys na aanleiding van Piso se aanklag teen Germanicus – “Dis ál wat ons nog uit jou kry: net woorde, / net praat en speel met moontlikheid” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:98) – dat in Van Wyk Louw se oeuvre “die intellektualisme of besinning die daad uitskakel.” Conradie (1974:56) vind ’n rede vir Germanicus se nie-optrede in die bewering dat hy sou vrees dat indien hy die mag sou gryp, “hy onvermydelik ook in die vuil van Rome ingetrek sou word, dat hy ook soos Tiberius sou word”. Volgens Dekker (1963:366) weier Germanicus om ’n “aktiewe taak” te aanvaar in ’n wêreld waarin hy lotsverbonde is. Brink (1966:318) bring Germanicus se dadeloosheid in verband met die feit dat hy nie “skeppend (kan) optree teenoor die chaos nie” omdat hy “in sy hoogste ideaal ... onwetend ... onsuiwer is”, gemotiveer deur Germanicus se uiteindelike besef: “’n Mens die moet ook modderig wees / as jy wil mens-wees – óf as jy wil heers ...” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:109).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> In die voorgaande uitsprake word die karakter van Germanicus sonder meer, en ongenuanseerd, as “daadloos” getipeer – dít ongeag die feit dat Louw, volgens Steyn (1998:403), reeds in November 1941 aan die drama begin werk het en dit eers in 1956 gepubliseer is. ’n Ontleding van Louw se in-diepte ontginning van veral die betekenis van die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> behoort na my oordeel aan te toon dat die bykans vyftien jaar wat dit geneem het voordat die drama gepubliseer is, ’n vrugbare betekenis-besinningstydperk was.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Implisiete ondersteuning vir my standpunt vind ek in </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Antonissen (1963:181) se baie skerp uitspraak dat Germanicus “volstrek nie ‘passief’ is en hom ook nie passief gedra nie” Hy sê verder: “Dink of heilige-wees of strewe-na-heiligheid is nie passief nie, maar hoogste menslike aktiwiteit.” Sou Austin (1962) se baanbrekerswerk oor die aard van taalhandelinge in hierdie tyd reeds algemeen bekend gewees het, sou hy kon byvoeg dat taal meer doen as net om te verwys – dat taal in der waarheid self daad is en dat deur taaldade die wêreld verander word en kan word.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">5.1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Betekenisdimensies van die daad in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><i>Germanicus</i></span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><i> </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Omdat die bespreking verder gebaseer word op die verskillende betekenisvlakke van die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> – soos wat ons dit vroeër onderskei het – herhaal ons dit hier:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">Daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">1</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> dui op ’n </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">afgeslote, ongespesifiseerde fisiese handeling, gewoonlik gekontrasteer met die woord </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">woord</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">Daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">verwys na spesifieke soorte fisiese handelinge</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> wat met geweld gepaard mag gaan en ’n slagoffer as resultaat mag hê.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">Daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">3</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">verwys na ongespesifiseerde fisiese, psigiese of ander soorte dade – dus eintlik na die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">Daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">4</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">verwys na metaforiese uitbreidings van die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Dit is verder belangrik om daarop te let dat die onderskeie betekenisonderskeidings nie noodwendig rigied van mekaar te onderskei is nie. In die betrokke drama is die daad byvoorbeeld dikwels verknoop met ’n taalhandeling, sodanig dat dit gepaard kan gaan met ’n taalhandeling, die gevolg is van ’n taalhandeling, self ’n taalhandeling kan wees, of taalhandelinge of ander handelinge tot gevolg kan hê. En dan het die intensie, die instigasie of die sanksie van die daad dikwels ’n komplekser en dieper bron, wat noodwendig die bepaalde betekenisonderskeidings meer vloeibaar maak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Die konsep <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span> word deur die betrokke drama self ingegee – en verskillende karakters se besinning oor die aard van die daad maak dit ’n wesenlike geobjektiveerde ervaring binne die betrokke dramakonteks. Dit demonstreer ook baie duidelik hoedat Van Wyk Louw self geobjektiveerd oor die betekenis van die konsep <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span> besin het.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Enersyds bring Lucius byvoorbeeld die daad in verband met opstand, iets “waarna ons hele lewe uitgereik het / soos na geen vrou” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:20); andersyds bring sy twyfel en vertwyfeling vir hom die doodsdrif as alternatief daarvoor in die woorde: “hoe nederig is die daad, hoe groots die dood” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:26). Germanicus se versugting na die daad vind ons in sy eie woorde: “Het ek nie daad, oorwinning, eer, mag / soos drank voel opstoot deur my sinne nie / en droë-keel geword van die begeerte / meer as een dag!” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:33); maar ook sy twyfel daaroor wanneer hy in Lucius se dood laasgenoemde verlos sien daarvan, en opmerk: “Waarom spring ons van dag tot dag van daad / na daad?” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:41). ’n Ander dimensie van die daad vind ons in Clemens se woorde wanneer hy die oorsprong daarvan by Tiberius beskryf: “jou, Caesar, sal die waansin en die vrees / van daad tot daad dryf tot jy eensaam is” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:77). Piso se motivering vir die daad spruit uit sy versugting na die herstel van die ou republiek, om Romein te wees en te heers “oor dié wat slap en nederig / dink” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:25) – vergestalt in sy woorde aan Germanicus: “Ruk jou weer los. Kom tot die daad, die daad. / Dít is ons ras se krag” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:98).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die geobjektiveerde daad, soos hier bo na verwys deur verskillende karakters binne verskillende omstandighede, funksioneer in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> veral op betekenisvlak van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">3</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">ongespesifiseerde fisiese, psigiese of ander soort dade: die kategorie <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span>. Die onderhawige historiese drama vergestalt ’n tyd van opstand, geweld, veldslae en selfs moord – ’n tyd waarin die fisiese daad ’n belangrike beslegtingsmeganisme was.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: green; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Kennis van hierdie omstandighede konstitueer ’n “more generalized ‘background’ knowledge configuration” volgens Taylor (2002:195) – en dit is teen sodanige agtergrond (kennisdomein) wat konseptualisering – nie net in die geval van hierdie drama nie – plaasvind. Tiberius vat die betrokke agtergrond-kennisdomein saam met die woorde: “Ons is gebind / aan die lot in die stink kloaak van hierdie Ryk, / en die vuil van hierdie tyd spoel oor ons almal” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:74). Sodanige konteks bring noodwendig mee dat die aard van die fisiese daad dikwels verskillende vorme aanneem. Daarom bly die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> in baie verwysings ongedefinieer, wat tot gevolg het dat die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> binne die betrokke konteks as ’n ontologiese metafoor gebruik word. Sodanig beskou, kry dit die status van ’n entiteit, op grond waarvan dit ons in staat stel “to refer to it, quantify it, identify a particular aspect of it, see it as a cause, act with respect to it, and perhaps even believe that we understand it”, volgens Lakoff & Johnson (1980:26). Germanicus motiveer dié status wanneer hy aan Piso sê: “Maar áls is ingewikkeld; selfs die daad / is nie, soos jy meen, enkeld” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:100). Met hierdie uitspraak transponeer hy die betekenisinhoud van die woord </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> egter na ’n nog hoër (en noodwendig abstrakter) konseptuele hiërargiese vlak, dus in die betekenis van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">4</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> En Piso se verwyt teenoor Germanicus, naamlik “Dis ál wat ons nog uit jou kry: net woorde” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:98) – dus nie dade nie – reflekteer ook die betekenisinhoud van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">daad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> op hiërargiese vlak 1 (as </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">1</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">), terwyl hy eintlik suggereer, teen die agtergrond van die drama, dat sy verwagting is dat Germanicus die daad op hiërargiese vlak 2 (as </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">) moet pleeg. Die suggestie van die betekenisonderskeiding van </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> is egter ook opgesluit in talle ander verwysings na die ongedefinieerde daad (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">1</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Dit is betekenisvol – miskien ook ironies – dat, ten spyte van die verwyt van dadeloosheid, dít – vlak 2 (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">) – tog ook die vlak is waarop Germanicus verskillende dade vergestalt, byvoorbeeld in die veldslag teen die Cheruskers. Die jong offisier rapporteer die geweld daarvan as ’n “jag ... op ménse; na die oë slaan / wat wit en bewerig smeek, en wéér en wéér / die swaard voel ínsink ...” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:34), en hy verhaal ook Germanicus se optrede tydens die slag toe hy “sy helm weggesmyt (het) en oop / – soos 'n god –” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:36) sy manskappe aangevoer het. Germanicus word verder ook eksplisiete eksponent van die daad van geweld met die neersteek van die soldaat om die eer van Julia te beskerm met die veelseggende woordkeuse “offer” in “Dis ek wat hierdie offer slag” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:14).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Binne die betrokke dramakonteks konstitueer </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> ’n betekenisinhoud van die woord wat neerkom op verskillende manifestasies van geweld met die noodwendige implikasie van ’n slagoffer – soos met Germanicus se neersteek van die soldaat, die foltering en waarskynlike dood van die slaaf Clemens, en ook Livia se vernedering van die gevangene Thusnelda. En die kulminasie van geweldpleging deur die daad word gesuggereer deur Tiberius se verwysing na mense as “buit”; mense ook geïmpliseer in sy “moeras”-metafoor: “’n goor welsel uit die aarde / wat uit ’n honderd gate en skeure borrel” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:71). Word die daad aan slagoffers gemeet, dan is Tiberius waarskynlik die beste eksponent van die daad in hierdie drama. Dis is ook insiggewend dat Piso se (waarskynlike) enigste geweld-daad (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">) sy aandeel aan Germanicus se vergiftiging is – andersins tree hy taalhandelend op, dus nie binne een van die betekenisonderskeidings van die woord as leksikale item nie, wanneer hy byvoorbeeld van Germanicus eis (“Die man wat heers in Rome, moet hier heers” – </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:12), wanneer hy Germanicus dreig (“en wie óns – ek en julle – nie vertrou nie, / wip gouer uit die saal as hy geklim het” – </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:12), wanneer hy oprui en aanstig (“(V)annag het iets by ons gebreek. / ... / van nou af sal ons een-een dalk moet handel. / Word hy ’n Caesar, staan ons weer teen hóm” – </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:22), en wanneer hy sy ontrouheid rugbaar maak in sy eis dat Germanicus Tiberius moet vernietig.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Nieteenstaande Germanicus se gewelddadige optrede, soos hier bo na verwys, en ook die geweldpleging deur ander karakters, word die betekenisinhoud wat </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> binne sy bestek het, deur die dramakonteks baie rigied begrens. Die status van die daad, soos van Germanicus vereis, word bepaal deur die identiteit van die slagoffer. Daarom hef ’n daad van geweld teen onbekende of mindere slagoffers nie sy beweerde dadeloosheid op nie. Die daad moet vereenduidig word op grond van die persoon van die slagoffer, soos uitgespel in Piso se eis: “Dat jy Tiberius slaan en hom vernietig –” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:100).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Germanicus verwys egter na die daad as nie “enkeld” nie!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: green; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">So ’n verwysing impliseer die daad op ’n abstrakter vlak van handeling – die taalhandelingsvlak. Hierdie vlak laat juis toe dat die daad op die kommunikatiewe vlak verskillende geaardhede en variasies kan hê. Dit bied meer beweegruimte binne die grense van die daad. So byvoorbeeld benut Germanicus op hierdie vlak die (taal)handeling strategies en misleidend deur sy twyfelagtige belofte: “Eers noord!” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:15) – waarna reeds verwys is. Maar dit is ook op hierdie vlak wat Germanicus sy eie lot “kragdadig” verseël met die woorde aan Tiberius: “Ek neem dit aan. / Ek vat dit soos ek ook die dood aanvaar / en al wat menslik is” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:84).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: green; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Maar die verwysing na die nie-enkeldheid van die daad impliseer nie net ander soorte abstrakter dade as die fisiese nie. Dit verwys na iets wat verknoop is aan die daad in al sy manifestasies. Germanicus motiveer die nie-enkeldheid daarvan self as iets wat nie rasioneel agterhaalbaar is nie: “selfs die daad / is nie, ... , enkeld; en die denk / sit knoop aan knoop gekoek” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:100); ook in nog woorde aan Piso: “Vir jou is alles enkeld; en vir my / ... veelvuldig alles, / en eindeloos vol spel en moontlikheid” (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1961:97/98). Dit sou nie vergesog wees om te vermoed dat Germanicus hier ook die kompleksiteit van die oorsprong van die daad in gedagte gehad het nie (verder terug as die intensie) – die rasionaal agter wat hom vroeër in die drama “al wat menslik is” nie laat aanvaar het nie – die morele instigasie van die daad!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">5.2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Die morele dimensie van die daad in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><i>Germanicus</i></span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Wanneer die daad na ’n menslike handeling verwys wat <i>gepleeg</i> word, is moraliteit noodwendig ’n latente element van die daad. Dienooreenkomstig moet mense as slagoffers van die daad (<b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>2</sup></b>) bejeën word in hierdie drama! Dié metafoor (<i>slagoffers</i>) word bykans verletterlik in Germanicus se woorde, soos in die vorige afdeling na verwys: “Dis ek wat hierdie offer slag” (</span><i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:<span lang="NL">14). Die demonstratief <i>hierdie</i> binne die naamwoordstuk <i>hierdie offer</i> impliseer juis dat daar meerdere offers is – en daar is! Die bestek van hierdie bespreking laat nie ’n volledige opgaaf toe nie. Eksemplaries is daar reeds na enkele van Germanicus se dade binne hierdie betekenisonderskeiding verwys. Vervolgens word die aandag gewy aan die betekenisonderskeiding ‘instrument van die daad’ (aanvullend tot ‘slagoffer van die daad’) wat deur die betekenisbestek van <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>2</sup></b> omspan word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 12pt;">5.2.1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Instrumente van die daad</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">In die veldtogte wat Germanicus onderneem, verloor onbekende slagoffers hulle lewens. Hierin tree Germanicus as instrument van die daad op. Die aard van dié daad beskryf hy self as “</span>die swaar Ryk” wat “máál ... en bréék”, en hy sien homself as “die krag / wat op die ver uithoek hierdie werk” vir die Ryk doen, en besef: “hy (die Ryk) kon ook ander kragte / en ander hande vir sy duister arbeid / vind – en báie maal – ook sonder my” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:46). Germanicus se verwysing na “duister arbeid” suggereer sy vertwyfeling oor die moraliteit van sy plig as soldaat en veldheer. Wanneer hy in desperaatheid teenoor Tiberius uitroep dat hy gru, dat hy vrees dat die Ryk hom “ook sal gryp / en ánders maak ... en minder ...” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:74), in reaksie op Tiberius se minagting van die mens, wanhoop hy reeds aan die moraliteit van sy dade as soldaat. Uiteindelik kom hy tot die besef dat die omstandighede van die Ryk wat “met sy fondamente in die klei / van die haat en bitterheid” lê (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:80), sy eie “bloedige ambag” (dus: <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>2</sup></b>) as soldaat sinneloos maak. Die relaas van die jong offisier van die vroeëre veldslag as ’n jag “op ménse; na die oë slaan / wat wit en bewerig smeek” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:34), eggo, in ooreenstemming met Tiberius se minagting van die mensheid, die immoraliteit van die oorlogs<i>daad</i>. Hierdie beskrywing beeld nie die vyand of teenstanders uit nie. Dit is ’n beskrywing van slagoffers!<o:p></o:p></div>
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En Germanicus kan die metafoor van die Ryk nie ontsnap nie! Tiberius versmelt hom dienooreenkomstig in die “swart donker dier wat skuil”, waarvan Tiberius “die kop” en Germanicus “die klou” is, en kom tot die gevolgtrekking: “Elkeen doen maar sy werk: jy, skoon; ek, vuil ...” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:82). Die substantief <i>werk</i> is ’n spesifikasie van die <i>doen</i> (dus: die daad) waarvan Tiberius praat, maar werk as sodanig dra ’n verpligting in hom opgesluit – en dit is hierdie verpligting aan die Ryk wat Germanicus, nieteenstaande die wyse waarop hy instrument is, nie kan ontsnap nie. Dit bring die moraliteit van Germanicus se dade (in die betekenis van <b><span lang="NL" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span></b><b><sup><span lang="NL">2</span></sup></b>) vir die Ryk onder verdenking.<span lang="NL"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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’n Variasie van die klou-metafoor word gevind in die woord <i>hande</i> – as metafoor, óf binne metafore gebruik. Dit is dus nie vreemd nie dat hande, as tipiese instrumente van die fisiese daad, redelik frekwent in die betrokke drama voorkom. Wat in hierdie verband egter belangrik is, is die feit dat hierdie metafore draers word van verskillende morele dimensies van die daad.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Na die veldslag waarna die jong offisier verwys as die “jag ... op ménse”, veredel Agripinna byvoorbeeld die daad (<b><span lang="NL" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span></b><b><sup><span lang="NL">2</span></sup></b>) met die “dapper hande” (dus: instrumente van geweld) van die soldate wat sy wil vat (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:38). Daarteenoor verteenwoordig Tiberius se verwysing na “Caesar se vuil hande” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:74) ’n aanklag teen sy eie immoraliteit. Dit is insiggewend dat die verwysing na homself in hierdie verband in die derde persoon geskied. Onttrekking uit die deiktiese sentrum (distansiëring) word hier ’n ontsnapping van aanvaarding deur die self. Maar <i>hande</i> se metaforiese nuanses kry ook in Tiberius anders beslag wanneer hy tog verwys na “my eie hande is swart en eensaam voor my / waar ek tas” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:80). Hierdie verwyt teen immoraliteit kan juis nie anders as om op die self gerig te wees nie – ook omdat dit gepaard gaan met ’n verwysing na ’n vernietigende emosionele gesteldheid (eensaamheid) wat die gevolg is van sy immoraliteit. Feitlik onmiddellik daarna onttrek hy die self weer uit die deiktiese sentrum met die derdepersoonsopmerking: “Dis werk vir die aasvoël, vir Tiberius” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:80). Germanicus verwoord hierdie morele ambivalensie van Tiberius wanneer hy hom waarsku: “(J)y gryp / met hande wat nie joune is, na mense, / ... dit kom uit die waansin” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:83).<o:p></o:p></div>
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’n Volledige bespreking van al die instrumente van die daad val buite hierdie bestek.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Daar dien egter nog op gelet te word, teen die agtergrond van die voorgaande bespreking, dat die metafoor (vir die instrument van die daad, óf die daad self, óf die slagoffer van die daad) immoraliteit kan kondoneer. In hierdie opsig hang die moraliteitservaring saam met die beheersende punt waaruit dit beoordeel word. Daar is reeds gewys op Tiberius se onttrekking uit die deiktiese sentrum om die immorele aanslag gedeeltelik af te weer. Maar dan is daar ook verwysings na “die dooies” wat soos “koringstingels” lê (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:37) – in plaas van “slagoffers”; Tiberius se verwysing na mense as “buit” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:71), waarin die metafoor hom moet ontdaan van enige gevoel van menslikheid; en Germanicus se verwysing na die daad (<b><span lang="NL" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span></b><b><sup><span lang="NL">2</span></sup></b>) as “’n diens vandag verrig / wat die Ryk nie gou of ligweg kan vergeet nie”. Hierdie verskynsel, waarin immoraliteit deur die metafoor verbloem word, kulmineer in die metafoor wat Germanicus teenoor Piso gebruik as laasgenoemde homself identifiseer as “Romein, soldaat en offisier” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:42), iemand wat sy plig ken en dit doen. Dít – die ontduiking van die waarskynlike woord “slagoffer” – antwoord hy op die vraag “Wat sien jy as jy steek?” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:41), waarop Germanicus die aard van moraliteitsverhulling saamvat in: “Dis vreemd dat woorde so ’n kors kan maak / rondom die hart. Nooit raak mens aan die <i>lewe</i> / wat fyn en bewerig soos 'n kindjie sit nie (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:42). Hierin suggereer Germanicus ook sy eie morele bedenkinge ten opsigte van die oorlogsdaad.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Moraliteit betrek egter nie net die daad (<b><span lang="NL" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span></b><b><sup><span lang="NL">2</span></sup></b>) self en die fisiese omstandigehde van die daad nie. Dit lê ook op ’n hoër en abstrakter vlak, wanneer die daad besinning en woorde word – die vlak van morele regverdiging.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="A1"></a><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">5.2.2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Morele regverdiging</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL">Alhoewel Germanicus as </span>soldaat<span lang="NL"> binne die dade van geweld (<b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span><sup>2</sup></b>)<sup> </sup>– en dus die dampkring van immoraliteit – funksioneer, is die morele impak daarvan gering in vergelyking met sy immoraliteit wat daarin geleë is dat hy “</span>nie gróót wou wees” nie maar “gewoon was” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:112); dat hulle van hom geglo het “dat hy die Caesar-wortel uit sou grawe” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:22), en hy hét nie – al hierdie bewerings deur Piso; en verder dat hy Piso se liefde wat hom verbind het aan “áls / wat enkeld suiwer was” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:112), beskaam het. Vir Piso sou dié suiwerheid gestalte kry in die motief vir Tiberius se vernietiging, naamlik die herstel van die Ryk wat spruit uit ’n lojaliteit aan die Ryk. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Maar dit is júís Germanicus se suiwerheid wat hom nie toelaat om Tiberius te vernietig nie, wat hom laat besef: “Ek was te helder. / ’n Mens die moet ook modderig wees / as jy wil mens-wees – óf as jy wil heers ...” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:109). Germanicus is vasgevang in ’n kragveld wat gekonstitueer word deur “moral reasoning” en “moral behaviour”, in ooreenstemming met die onderskeid wat (Westen, 1996:557) tref. In teenstelling met Piso, wat ooreenkomstig “morality of constraint”, ... “of duty pure and simple” optree, beredeneer Germanicus die morele implikasies van sy moontlike daad-keuses. Binne hierdie verband gaan hy selfs so ver om binne die model van “morality of cooperation” (Westen, 1996:558), waarbinne morele reëls verander kan word, tevergeefs Tiberius tot ander morele insigte te bring met die woorde: “maar ek tas ... na ’n helderheid, / na iets so heerliks wat die Ryk kan word, / en U, U kan dit bring. Ek kan U dien” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:82).<o:p></o:p></div>
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En uiteindelik kan Germanicus niks moreel regverdig nie. Germanicus kan immoraliteit nie ontsnap nie. Kies hy om getrou aan sy ideaal van suiwerheid en trou te bly (“Ek is getrou. Ek is aan trou gewoond” – <i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:9) en Tiberius nie die slagoffer van verraad (<b><span lang="NL" style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">daad</span></b><b><sup><span lang="NL">2</span></sup></b>) te maak nie, tree hy ontrou (immoreel) teenoor die volk op. Sou hy die daad van geweld teenoor Tiberius pleeg, sou dit ’n morele verpligting wees wat hy ten opsigte van die Ryk en sy mense nakom – maar hy sou ontrou (immoreel) teenoor Tiberius optree – én teenoor sy eie aard. En hoe swaar weeg verraad gepleeg teenoor ’n keiser, en boonop nog ’n familielid?<o:p></o:p></div>
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Daarom word Germanicus uiteindelik self slagoffer. Maar die instrument van sy slagofferskap is (in sy eie woorde) nie Piso nie, nie Livia nie, ook nie Plancina nie – maar hy “sterf aan hierdie tyd” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:113). En “hierdie tyd” is ’n siek tyd, ’n immorele tyd – ’n tyd waarin die “die heilige siekte ... ons almal / wat mens is (beet het); hy skeur, hy laat ons skreeu en raas” (<i>Germanicus</i>, 1961:55), aldus Germanicus. Hierdie metaforiese beskrywing van dié besondere tyd is in ooreenstemming met Lakoff en Johnson (1999:291) se beskouing dat immoraliteit metafories dikwels as ’n aansteeklike siekte ervaar word. In hierdie woorde vind ons dus ook Germanicus se bekentenis van sy eie immoraliteit, omdat daar kragte is wat ook op die nie-sigbare vlak werksaam is – soos ’n siekte – wat hy self nie kan ontkom nie, maar ook nie kan bestry nie.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><b>Ten slotte</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Op grond van die voorgaande betoog wil ek Odendal (1987) se gevolgtrekkings oor Van Wyk Louw se taal aanpas ten opsigte van betekenis – en sê:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Iemand wat só met betekenis kan omgaan, betekenis só ken, móét betekenis tot in sy fynste vesels kén.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Van Wyk Louw kom tot óp die grense van betekenis; hy toets die grense van betekenis as’t ware.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">En dan my eie samevattting:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Van Wyk Louw was geen semantikus nie. Van Wyk Louw het nie oor moderne semantiese</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"> werktuie beskik om betekenis te konstrueer nie. Maar Van Wyk Louw het – geobjektiveerd én gesubjektiveerd – geweet dat betekenis nie eenduidig is nie, gewéét dat daar betekenisvlakke van die woord bestaan, ook geweet dat betekenis nie by die woord begin en eindig nie, en ook geweet dat betekenis-in-taal ons opvattings oor die groot waarhede moet dra. Trouens, Louw het ’n baie helder begrip gehad van hoedat betekenis in taal werk!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Maar nog meer as dit! Louw het nie gesê wat waarheid is nie. Hy het wel aangedui hoedat waarheid dieper lê as net in die betekenis van die woord – hoedat waarheid saamhang met universeel menslike verskynsels, verskynsels wat relevant was vir die voor-Christus-na-Christus-tydperk van ’n Germanicus, die ontdekkingstydperk van ’n Dias, die tydperk van wêreldoorlog en heldedom, die tydloosheid van ’n Raka – maar ook vir nou!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"><b>BRONVERWYSINGS</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Antonissen, Rob. 1963. <i>Kern en tooi</i>. <i>Kroniek van die Afrikaanse lettere 1951 – 1960</i>. Kaapstad: Nasou.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Austin, J.L. 1962. <i>How to do things with words</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Botha, W.J. 1991. Taalhandelingsdeterminante in die onderrig. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Taalkunde</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"> 9(1): 24-29.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Botha, W.J., C.J. Conradie en R. Preller. 1989. Modale hulpwerkwoorde in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dias</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. In C.J. Conradie (red.), </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Onomheinde sin</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Huldigingsuitgawe vir F.F. Odendal</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Spits</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">: </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">’n kritiese meningsblad</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">, 5(2): 73 – 115.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Botha, W.J. 2006. Die aard van die daad: wat dóén Germanicus (nie) ... en waarom (nie)? </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Journal for Language Teaching</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"> / </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Tydskrif vir Taalonderrig</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"> 40/1, 164 – 176.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Botha, W. J. 2007. Linguistic mechanisms of power and force: two case studies. In Larissa Manerko (ed.), </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive Linguistics: New Problems of Cognition</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">, Мocквa: Pязaнь, 14 – 20.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Brink, André P. 1966. Germanicus en Shakespeare. In: Nienaber, P.J. (red.) 1966. </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Beeld van ’n digter</span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">. </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">N.P. van Wyk Louw. </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaapstad: Nasionale Boekhandel, 311 – 323</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cloete, T.T. 1963. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Op die woord af</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth, Kaapstad, Bloemfontein: Nasionale Boekhandel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Cloete, T.T. 1980. <i>Van Wyk Louw se fundamenteel dramatiese instelling</i>. Publikasiereeks van die Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit. A 126. Johannesburg: RAU.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Conradie, P.J. 1974. Die gebruik van antieke bronne in Van Wyk Louw se <i>Germanicus</i>. <i>Spanning en ewewig</i>. Pretoria, Kaapstad: Academica.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dekker, G. 1963. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Afrikaanse literatuurgeskiedenis</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. </span><span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kaapstad: Nasou.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dirven, René & Marjolijn Verspoor (red.). 1999. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cognitieve inleiding tot taal en taalwetenschap</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Leuven / Amersfoort: Acco.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green. 2006. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive linguistics. An introduction</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Geeraerts, </span><span lang="NL-BE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dirk</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"> (red.) (2000). <i>Van Dale Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse taal</i> (versie 1.0 Plus). Utrecht (cd-rom).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Grové, A.P. 1965. <i>Oordeel en vooroordeel</i>. Kaapstad: Nasou.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Johnson, M. 1987. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">The body in the mind</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">: </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">The bodily basis of meaning, imagination and reason</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Chicago, Londen: University of Chicago Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson. 1980. <i>Metaphors we live by</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson. 1999. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Philosophy in the Flesh</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Ongepubliseerde elektroniese versie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Langacker, Ronald W. (1990). Subjectification. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive Linguistics</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"> 1(1): 5-38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Langacker, Ronald W. 1993. Reference-point constructions. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive Linguistics</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;"> 4(1):1–38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Louw, N.P. van Wyk. 1961. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Germanicus</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Vierde druk (eerste druk – 1956). Kaapstad: Nasionale Boekhandel Bpk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Louw, N.P. van Wyk. 1962. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Raka</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Elfde druk (eerste druk – 1941). Kaapstad: Nasionale Boekhandel Bpk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Louw, N.P. van Wyk. 1963. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Dias</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Vierde druk (eerste druk – 1952). Kaapstad: Nasionale Boekhandel Bpk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Louw, N.P. van Wyk. 1970. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Die held</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Agste druk (eerste druk – 1962). Johannesburg: Afrikaanse Pers-Boekhandel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Louw, N.P. van Wyk. 1970. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Rondom eie werk</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Kaapstad: Tafelberg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Lyons, J. 1977. <i>Semantics</i> I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Odendal, F.F. 1987. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Kort taalkundige reis deur Van Wyk Louw</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. N.P. van Wyk Louw-gedenklesing 1987, ongepubliseerde elektroniese versie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Ponelis, Frits A. (1978). Afrikaanse sintaksis. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Steyn, J.C. 1998. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van Wyk Louw</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">’n Lewensverhaal</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Deel I. Kaapstad: Tafelberg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Talmy, L. 1985. Force dynamics in language and thought. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">Papers from the Parasession on Causatives and Agentivity</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10pt;">. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Taylor, J.R. 2002. <i>Cognitive grammar</i>. Ongepubliseerde elektroniese versie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="NL" style="font-size: 10pt;">Van Heerden, Ernst. 1967. <i>N.P. van Wyk Louw</i>. <i>Monografieë uit die Afrikaanse letterkunde Nommer 3</i>. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Elsiesrivier: Nasou.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div style="margin: 0px;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 15.3333px;">Westen, Drew. 1996. <i>Psychology. Mind, brain, & culture</i>. New York: John Wiley & Sons.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-6890980131796220002016-11-21T14:50:00.003+02:002016-11-25T15:41:34.282+02:00’n Paar los gedagtes oor verlies<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #385623; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b style="color: black; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #385623; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #385623; font-size: 14.0pt;">In my argief ontdek ek ’n paar aantekeninge wat ek baie jare gelede gemaak
het ter voorbereiding van ’n gesprek met ’n eertydse kollega oor die konsep <span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">verlies</span> na aanleiding van ’n werk deur
Karel Schoeman, naamlik <i>Verliesfontein</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16.0pt;">’n Paar los gedagtes oor <i>verlies</i><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #c00000; font-size: 14.0pt;">Verlies</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"> is ’n afgeleide naamwoord van die
werkwoord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">verloor</span></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Dit
lyk asof <i><span style="color: #c00000;">verloor</span></i>
semanties op minstens twee wyses gebruik kan word:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">X <i><span style="color: #c00000;">verloor</span></i>
teen Y [TEENSTANDER]: ’n KONFRONTASIE-<i><span style="color: #c00000;">verloor</span></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Hierdie
<i><span style="color: #c00000;">verloor</span></i>
se substantiwiese ekwivalent is <i><span style="color: #c00000;">nederlaag</span></i> (wat teenoor <i><span style="color: #c00000;">oorwinning</span></i> staan) en nie <i><span style="color: #c00000;">verlies</span></i>
nie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 17.85pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">X het Y [BESIT/BESITTING] <i><span style="color: #c00000;">verloor</span></i>:
’n BESIT-<i>verloor</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">’n Semantiese ontleding kan soos volg lyk:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">X besit/beskik oor Y.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Y word X ontneem [of: X verloor Y], <b>deur</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">X se
eie toedoen;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(’n)
ander lewende entiteit(e) se toedoen;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">’n
abstakte toedoen;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">’n
fiktiewe toedoen;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">ens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Die
resultaat word <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">beoordeel</span></b> as ’n <b>verlies</b>
– deur die toedoen van een of meer van die genoemde <b>AGENTE</b>. Die krag van die verloorhandeling [<b>toedoen</b>] is relatief tot die oordeel van die aard van die verlies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Die tyd van <b>verlies</b> (verlede, hede of toekoms), op grond waarvan verlies <b><span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: normal;">verklaar</span></b>
word, veronderstel altyd ’n voorafgaande handeling/aktiwiteit. Die handeling
hoef nie die werkwoord <i><span style="color: #c00000;">verloor</span></i> te bevat of te impliseer nie,
byvoorbeeld: Sy <b>aftrede</b> [hy het <b>afgetree</b>] was vir ons ’n groot <b>verlies</b>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Op
grond van die voorgaande opmerking kan ons, na analogie van die term <b>oordeelsadjunkte</b> wat Ponelis (1979)
gebruik, praat van <i><span style="color: #c00000;">verlies</span></i> as ’n <b>oordeelsnaamwoord</b>. Die spreker, vanuit sy/haar <u>beheersende punt</u>,
<b>bepaal</b> (<b>oordeel</b>) of die handeling waardeur <b>besit</b> (<b>beskikking</b> / <b>teenwoordigheid</b> / <b>eksistensie</b> / ens.) ontneem is, as ’n <b>verlies</b> beskou kan word. Daarom is <b>verlies</b> ook maklik <u>gradeerbaar</u>: <b>groot</b> verlies; <b>klein</b>
verlies; <b>amperse</b> verlies; <b>geringe</b> verlies; <b>ontsettende</b> verlies; ens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Verlies</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"> staan ook teenoor <b>wins</b>, maar dan moet ons ook onthou dat ’n <b>regverdige wins</b> nie noodwendig iemand se <b>verlies</b> is nie. <b>Verlies</b>
staan dus nie in ’n <u>omgekeerde verhouding</u> (’n sekere soort
teenoorgesteldheid) tot <b>wins</b> nie. Op
die <b>wins-verlies-skaal</b> dui <b>verlies</b> op die versteuring van wat
Lakoff & Johnson “human well-being” noem – een van die fundamentele
beginsels wat moraliteitservaring onderlê. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Ten
opsigte van die samestelling <b><i>Verliesfontein</i></b> is die samevoeging
eintlik ’n soort paradoks. <i><span style="color: #c00000;">Fontein</span></i> impliseer op die realiteitsvlak ’n
dinamiese bron van water, ’n universele simbool vir lewe (soos byvoorbeeld op
ander planete gesoek). En lewe veronderstel die strewe na of die bestaan van
“human well-being”. En nou voed hierdie bron van lewe gebeurtenisse
(handelinge) wat as <b>verlies</b>
beoordeel word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Williehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02968437772307010856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4783475316597348949.post-83406490641275363962016-11-17T14:54:00.000+02:002016-11-25T15:41:52.211+02:00Die ontwikkeling van gesproke en geskrewe Afrikaans<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 16pt;">AAN DIE EINDE VAN HIERDIE ARTIKEL VERSKYN SKAKELS NA ANDER ARTIKELS DEUR DIESELFDE OUTEUR</span></b></div>
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